/-{     Library  of 


IM  MEMOUIAIA 
C.G.Van  liew 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD 


ABERDEEN    UNIVERSITY   PRESS. 


A  NEW 


MANUAL   OF   METHOD 


A.  H.  GARLICK,  B.A. 

(head    master    of   the   WOOLWICH    P.T.    CENTRE) 


NEW  YORK 

LONGMANS,    GREEN,    AND    CO. 

1896 


i 


,:?UC' 


PREFACE. 

Some  years'  experience  in  the  teaching  of  School  Method 
has  demonstrated  that  young"  students  require  much  more 
help  in  this  subject  than  is  offered  in  existing  manuals,  and 
that  the  information  contained  should  be  offered  in  its  most 
serviceable  form.  In  fact,  "  Centre  "  experience  has  shown 
that  no  book  is  suitable  unless  it  is  comprehensive  in  its 
range,  practical  in  its  nature,  and  modern  in  its  methods. 
There  are  books  in  the  market  meeting  some  of  these 
requirements,  but  none  meeting  them  all.  The  subject  is 
very  wide ;  the  time  that  can  be  allotted  to  it  very  small  : 
hence  the  book  should  be  such  as  to  do  most  of  its  own 
teaching.  For  this  reason  all  the  subject  matter  has  been 
carefully  methodised,  and  much  of  it  thrown  into  teaching 
form — the  form  which  is  most  difficult  to  young  teachers  to 
acquire,  and  the  most  useful  in  practice. 

This  work  is  based  on  the  writer's  teaching  notes  during 
the  past  ten  years  ;  and  as  it  grew  to  meet  the  wants  of  his 
own  pupils  for  their  recurring  examinations,  it  is  believed 
that  it  will  be  found  specially  suitable  for  pupil  teachers  and 
scholarship  students. 

Every  Examination  Question  in  the  book  is  selected  from 
the  papers  set  at  the  various  Queen's  Scholarship  and  Pupil 
Teachers'  Examinations. 

A.  H.  G. 

Woolwich  P.T.  Centre, 
1896. 


543! 76 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

p 

School  Economy 

Physiology  and  Education       -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         - 

1.  The  Popular  View 

2.  The  Scientific  View 

Headaches  and  Faintness 

1.  Food  Headaches 

2.  From  Impure  Atmosphere 2 

3.  From  Mental  Causes -         -  2 

4.  From  Physical  Causes -         -         -  2 

Light 2 

1.  Direction  of  Light -         -  2 

2.  Diffusion  of  Light 2 

3.  Artificial  Light 3 

Ventilation 3 

1.  Its  Difficulties 3 

2.  Cubic  Space 3 

3.  Means  of  Ventilation       -         - 3 

Warming         -- 4 

The  Thermometer .         .        .  ^ 

Cleaning 4 

Drill        -         -         -         - 5 

1.  Its  Objects ....5 

2.  General  Principles  and  Rules 5 

The  Playground 6 

1.  Physical  Uses 6 

2.  Its  Fittings ...-6 

3.  Its  Moral  Uses 6 

4.  The  Teacher's  Work       -         - 6 

Furniture 7 

The  School  Museum 7 

1.  Special  Objects 7 

2.  General  Objects 7 

3.  Its  Value 8 

Galleries 8 

Desks 9 

1.  Infant  Departments     - 9 

2.  Other  Departments  - 9 

Height  and  Dimensions 10 

Best  Position  in  the  Desk •  -  iq 

Schoolroom  Decoration 10 

1.  Walls 10 

2.  Windows 10 

3.  Pictures                   r              r              r              ,              t              »              »              -              -              r              r  19 


iii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

4.  Maps      --.--..---..       ij 

5.  Diagrams - 11 

6.  Honour  Board         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -11 

Examination  Questions 11 


CHAPTER  n. 

Discipline        ----- 12 

I.  What  it  is    -         -         -         -         -         - 12 

1.  It  must  be  based  on  Natural  Principles  ------       12 

2.  Its  Aims  must  be  good    -- 12 

II.  Ways  and  Means       --..-----.       X2 

1.  Material  Means 13 

2.  Mental  Means  --------         .-ig 

3.  Moral  Means 13 

4.  Older  Children  as  an  Aid  to  Discipline 13 

Order      -         .         -         - 14 

Parental  Co-operation     ----- 14 

1.  Correspondence       -         -         - 15 

2.  Visits       ------------       15 

3.  School  Entertainments    ---------15 

4.  Local  Residence     - -15 

5.  Local  Affairs  -----------15 

6.  Local  Press     -----------15 

Auxiliary  Means  of  Training  ---------       16 

1.  Recreation       -----------16 

2.  Assistance -.----16 

Punishment -------16 

1.  Its  Limits        ----.------16 

2.  Cases  for  no  Punishment         --------       17 

3.  The  Amount  of  Punishment 17 

4.  Selection  of  Punishment 18 

5.  Kinds  of  Punishment       ---------       18 

(a)  Blame     ----- 18 

(d)  Shame     -         -         -         - 18 

(c)  Detention         ..-.------       18 

[d)  Pleasure  .---.-.-.-       18 

{e)  Impositions      -         -         -         - 18 

(/)  Marks    -         -         - 18 

{^)  Corporal  Punishment     --------       18 

{/i)  Expulsion 18 

6.  Objectionable  Forms  of  Punishment 19 

7.  Corporal  Punishment      - -         -         -       19 

Objections  to  Corporal  Punishment 19 

8.  Young  Teachers  and  Corporal  Punishment 19 

Rewards  ----.-------20 

1.  Principles  underlying  their  Use       -------       20 

2.  Rewards  as  Inducements  to  Work  -------       20 

3.  School  Rewards      ----------       21 

{a)  Place  Taking  ---------       21 

{l>)  Decorations     ----------       C2z 

(c)  School  Privileges     ---------       21 

•  (d)  Prizes      -----------       21 

{e)  Esteem.  Praise         -         .         - -       21 

Good  Manners         -----------       21 

Anger      --  --22 

Obstinacy  r-----rrrr--23 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


I.  Mistaken  Obstinacy         -         -         -         -         -         --         -         -23 

1.  Stupidity  -         - 23 

2.  Physical  Weakness 23 

3.  Fear         ...--- 23 

4.  Treatment        ----- 23 

II.  Real  Obstinacy      ----------  23 

1.  The  Teacher    ----- 23 

2.  Fitful  Obstinacy       -         - 23 

3.  Vicious  Obstinacy 23 

4.  Treatment        ----------  23 

Crying    ------- 24 

1.  Stubborn  and  Domineering    --------  24 

2.  Sorrow  or  Pain        ...         -         - 24 

Cruelty   -         -         -         - 24 

1.  Natural  Tendency 24 

2.  Habit  and  Custom 25 

3.  History  - 25 

4.  Games     - 25 

5.  Animals  -         -         -         -         ' 25 

6.  Harshness       -        -        .        - -        -  25 

Kindness         - 25 

1.  Its  Scope --25 

2.  Its  Cultivation 25 

Cowardice       -- 25 

1.  Frights - 26 

2.  Ignorance ---26 

3.  Ill  Health        .         -         - 26 

4.  Association      --- 26 

5.  Moral  Cowardice -         -         -  26 

6.  Heredity  -         - -         -         -  26 

Obedience       ----- 26 

1.  Slave  Obedience 27 

2.  Military  Obedience --27 

3.  Cheerful  Obedience 27 

Inattention 27 

Conditions  of  Attention        -- 27 

1.  The  Will 27 

2.  Pleasurable 28 

3.  Physical  Conditions 28 

4.  Suitability  of  Work  -...----  28 

5.  Assistance         - 28 

6.  Obstacles  ----------  28 

7.  Punishment ---28 

Laziness 28 

1.  Constitutional  Laziness 28 

2.  Habit  Laziness 28 

Stupidity 29 

1.  When  bestowed  by  the  Parents       -------  29 

2.  When  bestowed  by  the  Teacher      -------  29 

Truthfulness 29 

1.  Causes  of  Untruth 29 

2.  Treatment 3° 

Honesty  -         - 30 

Tale-telling 31 

Copying 31 

1.  Its  Sources -31 

2.  Its  Treatment 31 

{a)  Mechanical  Means  rTTTTrT-31 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

{d)  The  Teacher   ----------      32 

(c)  Moral  Means  -------..32 

Unpunctuality  -------_.__       32 

1.  Its  Causes        ---------         ..33 

2.  To  Ensure  I*unctuality    ---------32 

Truancy  ---------..-33 

1.  Its  Causes        ---------..33 

2.  Its  Treatment  ----------33 

Habit       -----------_-       34 

1.  Nature  of  Habit      ----------34 

2.  The  Training  of  Habit    ---------35 

Character         ----._.         ..--.3^ 

Its  Cultivation      ---------.-3^ 

Examination  Questions ---37 

CHAPTER  III. 

Classification        -----------      38 

1.  Its  Basis      - 38 

2.  Bad  Classification        ----------38 

3.  Infant  Schools  and  Classification         -         - 39 

4.  Sub-division  of  Classes  in  Infant  Schools    ------       39 

5.  Shapes  of  Classes         --------.-40 

6.  Collective  Lessons       ----------41 

7.  Promotion  -.--.-.....      ^x 
Home  Lessons         ---------         ..42 

Arguments  for  and  against  Home  Lessons  -----       43 

Hindrances  to  Progress  .........       ^^ 

Time  Tables   ------------44 

1.  Revised  Instructions  and  Time  Tables    ------       44 

2.  General  Directions  .........      /^, 

3.  Advantages  of  Time  Tables ,-         -45 

4.  Distribution  of  Time        ..-------46 

{a)  In  Infant  Department     --------46 

(fi)  In  Upper  Department     --- 46 

Examination  Questions  .........      ^y 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Notes  of  Lesions  -- 48 

First  Step        ------------  48 

1.  Class        ------------  48 

2.  Time        --- 48 

3.  Aim          --- 48 

4.  Introduction     - .        .        .        .  ^g 

Second  Step     ----- 50 

Third  Step       ----- 50 

1.  Matter 50 

2.  Matter  in  Order       ----------  51 

Fourth  Step ;  Matter  not  in  Order  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -51 

Fifth  Step  ;  Heads  of  Lessons          -- 52 

Sixth  Step  ;   B.B.  Sketches       ---------  S3 

Seventh  Step ;  Apparatus        ---- 53 

Final  Step ;  Complete  Notes  -         - -         -  54 

Lessons  criticised     ---- 54 

1.  A  Good  Lesson -----54 

2.  A  Ba4  lycsson         -        t        t        ,        t        -        r        t        r        -  54 


CONTENTS.  xi 

PAGE 

A  Criticism  Lesson ,         ---55 

1.  What  it  is - 55 

2.  Its  Subject  Matter 55 

3.  Criticism 55 

Criticism  Form     - 56 

CHAPTER  V. 

Class  Teaching 57 

The  Teacher 57 

1.  Mental  Qualifications 57 

2.  Moral  Qualifications 57 

3.  Physical  Qualifications 58 

The  Diary 58 

Exercise  Books 59 

Aids  to  Teaching    ---- 59 

A.  Examination  of  Classes 59 

1.  Methods 60 

2.  The  Written  Method 60 

3.  The  Oral  Method 60 

4.  The  Double  Method 60 

B.  Questioning ----60 

1.  Conditions  for  Success  -- 60 

2.  The  Objects  of  Questioning 61 

3.  Places  for  Questioning  ..- 61 

4.  Rules  for  Questioning 61 

(a)  Positive  Rules 61 

(d)  Negative  Rules 61 

5.  Defective  Questions 61 

C.  Answering 61 

1.  Answers  ;  their  Value -62 

2.  Good  Answers      -         -         -         -         -         --         -         -         -62 

3.  Received  Answers 62 

4.  Rejected  Answers 62 

D.  Explanation -         -        -63 

E.  Description 63 

F.  Definition 64 

Examination  Questions 65 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Object  Lessons 66 

Suggestions 67 

Their  Value 68 

T.  Principal  Uses         -        -        -        - 68 

2.   Minor  Uses 68 

The  Training  of  the  Senses 69 

Schemes  of  Object  Lessons 70 

1.  Plant  Life        - 71 

2.  Animal  Life    -- ---71 

3.  The  Sky,  the  Air,  the  Surface  of  the  Land  and  Water   -         -         -  72 

4.  Object  Lessons  for  Town  Schools 73 

5.  Object  Lessons  for  Country  Schools 74 

6.  Object  Lessons  in  the  Science  of  Common  Things  -        -        -  74 

7.  Measuring,  Weighing  and  Testing 75 

Lesson  on  Sundew  and  P'lesh-eating  Plants     ------  76 

Notes  of  a  Lesson  on  a  Sponge 77 

J£xaiT)ination  Questions  •        ^        t       \        •>        r        t        i-        -        -  y^ 


xii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

PAGE 

Kindergarten -70 

1.  What  it  is  -        -        -        -        -        -        - 70 

2.  Its  Advantages ^n 

(a)  Intellectual  Advantages 70 

{i>)  Physical  Advantages 70 

(c)  Moral  Advantages 70 

Froebel's  Gifts 70 

1.  Play .79 

2.  Song -         -       80 

3.  Dance      - 80 

4-   Gifts         -         - 80 

(a)  First  Gift  -         -         . 80 

(/>)  Second  Gift 81 

(c)  Third  Gift        -        -        - 81 

(d)  Fourth  Gift      ----- 8a 

(e)  Fifth  Gift  -         .         .         . 8^ 

{/)  Sixth  Gift -         -         .         .         .       8q 

ig)  Seventh  Gift    - -         -       84 

Varied  Occupations  -------...85 

Colour     --------_._.         .86 

1.  Stages - 86 

2.  How  taught     --- 86 

3.  Apparatus        ---.. -87 

4.  General  Principles  --.. 87 

Plan  of  a  Lesson  on  a  Secondary  Colour      -        -        -        -        -      87 
Form       -------.-___.      87 

1.  Language        ----.--.._.      87 

2.  Size  ----------..87 

3.  Dimensions 88 

4.  Positions  ----._ 88 

5.  Curve ------_       88 

6.  Surface    --------....88 

Drawing  ---.. 88 

First  Stage -         - 89 

Second  Stage - 89 

Third  Stage 89 

Examination  Questions 8q 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


Arithmetic 


91 


Advantages  of  teaching  Arithmetic 92 


Notation 


93 


1.  The  Numbers  it0  9         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -94 

2.  The  Numbers  from  10  to  20 94 

3.  Numbers  above  20  ---------       g^ 

4.  The  Notation  of  Hundreds 95 

Number  Pictures     -- 96 

1.  Requirements  ---.. ^6 

2.  Apparatus        -         -         --         -         -         -         _         -        _         -97 

3.  Teaching  -----------       97 

4.  Plan  of  Lessons       ----------       ^8 

5.  To  teach  the  Number  2 98 

6.  Subsequent  Lessons "99 

Simple  Addition       ----- -     100 

1.  Units       ----..-----.     100 

2.  Tens         ----.....--.     loi 
Simple  Subtraction  ^,,,,^,,,-     jgg 


CONTENTS,  xiii 

PAGE 

1.  First  Lessons  ------ 102 

2.  The  Method  of  Decomposition 102 

3.  The  Method  of  Equal  Additions      -------  103 

4.  The  Method  of  Complementary  Addition        -----  104 

5.  The  Two  Methods  of  Decomposition  and  Equal  Additions  com- 

pared        105 

The  Multiplication  Tables -  105 

1.  Memory           _.- 105 

2.  Teaching         - 106 

Multiplication  by  One  Figure -        .        .  107 

,,                  Two  Figures -  108 

,,                  Three  Figures 108 

Factors 109 

Short  Methods         - no 

Short  Division          - in 

Division  by  Factors -         -         -         -112 

Divisibility  of  Numbers 113 

Short  Methods 114 

Long  Division 114 

Compound  Rules 114 

The  Compound  Rules  criticised   - 116 

Compound  Subtraction -         -116 

Compound  Multiplication 117 

1.  By  One  Figure 117 

2.  By  Two  Figures 118 

3.  Different  Methods  - --118 

4.  Remarks  on  the  Methods -         -119 

Compound  Division         - 119 

1.  Short  Division 120 

2.  Long  Division 120 

The  Compound  Tables 121 

Reduction — How  to  Teach  it -         -122 

TheG.C.M.  or  H.C.F.         -        -■      -         -         -         -         -         -         -  123 

The  L.C.M.         - 125 

How  to  find  the  L.C.M.       - 126 

Vulgar  Fractions 127 

Improper  Fractions  and  Mixed  Numbers    ------  128 

Addition  and  Subtraction  of  Fractions 128 

Multiplication  of  Fractions 129 

1 .  To  multiply  a  Vulgar  Fraction  by  an  Integer           -        -        -  129 

2.  To  multiply  a  Vulgar  Fraction  by  a  Vulgar  Fraction       -        -  130 

3.  To  prove  the  Multiplier  and  Multiplicand  can  be  interchanged 

without  altering  the  Product 131 

4.  Harder  Examples 131 

Division  of  Fractions -...  1^2 

Mechanical  Aids  for  teaching  Fractions       ------  132 

1.  The  Allied-Colour  Fraction  Chart    - 132 

2.  Cowham's  Fractions  at  a  Glance 133 

Cancelling 134 

Practice 135 

Simple  Practice            135 

Compound  Practice 136 

Ratio  ;  Notes  of  Lesson 136 

Proportion  ;  Notes  of  Lesson 137 

The  Unitary  Method  of  Proportion 138 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  the  Two  Methods           -         .         .  138 

Decimals -..-.  i^g 

Notation  and  Numeration 139 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Decimals,  Finite  and  Infinite 139 

To  determine  the  Limit  of  the  Number  of  liepeating  Figures  in  a 

Non-terminatmg  Decimal      -         -         -         -         -         -         -  140 

To  change  a  Pure  Circulating  Decimal  into  a  Vulgar  Fraction   -         -  141 

To  convert  an  Impure  Circulator  into  a  Vulgar  Fraction     -         -         -  141 

The  Simple  Rules         ----..-----  141 

Applications  of  Proportion       ---------  142 

Square  Root ;   Notes  of  Lesson        --------  143 

Mental  Arithmetic       ----------  145 

Objects  of  Mental  Arithmetic           --_._-_-  145 

How  to  obtain  these  Objects            --------  14^ 

Tots         -------------  145 

1.  Arnold's  Revolving  Tots          --------  146 

2.  The  Oxford  Tot  Frame            -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  146 

Some  Special  Rules  for  Mental  Arithmetic      ------  146 

Typical  Problems  for  each  Standard       -         - 149 

Examination  Questions 151 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Reading 153 

Its  Value         ------ 153 

General  Principles  -----------  153 

Age  to  commence  the  teaching  of  Reading 155 

Infant  Reading  and  its  Difficulties           -------  156 

To  teach  the  Alphabet --         -         -157 

1.  Apparatus  required           -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  i57 

2.  Capital  Letters 157 

3.  Plan  of  Lesson         ----------  158 

4.  Small  Letters           ----------  158 

Classification  of  Letters  ----------  158 

First  Lessons  after  the  Alphabet      -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -158 

Card  and  Primer  Stage    -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  iS9 

Methods  of  teaching  Reading           -'-         -         -         -         -         -         -  160 

1.  The  Alphabetic  Method 160 

2.  The  Phonic  Method         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  161 

3.  The  Phonetic  Method      -         -         -         - 162 

4.  The  Look-and-Say  Method     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  163 

5.  The  Syllabic  Method       ---------  165 

6.  The  Method  of  Phonic  Analysis      -------  165 

7.  The  Combined  Method  ---------  166 

8.  The  English  Method        ---------  167 

Notes  of  a  Reading  Lesson     ---------  169 

How  to  deal  with  Anomalous  Difficulties  in  Reading      -         -         -         -  171 

Qualities  of  Good  Reading      ---------  171 

1.  Mechanical  Qualities        ---------  171 

ia)  Pronunciation ----  171 

(d)  Enunciation     ----- 171 

(c)  Articulation     -         - -         -  172 

{d)  Pitch       ----- 172 

{e)  Modulation  and  Tone 172 

(/)  Pace 172 

Ig)  Accent 172 

2.  Mental  Qualities -----  i73 

(a)  Emphasis         - 173 

(d)  Phrasing           - 173 

(c)  Fluency   -         -         - 173 

{d)  Intelligence     -- 173 

{e)  Expression       --- ^73 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGE 

Silent  Reading 174 

Simultaneous  Reading     .-- 174 

Backward  Readers           -         - 176 

Reading  Books         .         -         - 177 

T.   Their  Qualities         --         - -         -177 

2.  Variety ..-  177 

3.  Reading  Books  in  Class  Subjects 178 

{a}  Where  the  Class  Subjects  are  taught 178 

{!>)  Where  the  Subjects  are  not  taught           .         .         .         .         .  178 

Fairy  Tales  as  Reading  Matter       --------  179 

Recitation        -.- 180 

1.  Physical  Qualities    ----------  180 

2.  Mental  Qualities 180 

3.  Advantages      -----------  180 

4.  Pieces  suitable  for  Recitation  -         -         -         -         -         -         --181 

Examination  Questions   - ±        .        .        .  182 

CHAPTER  X. 

Spelling  ----- -        -  184 

Ways  of  teaching  Spelling       - -  184 

1.  The  Reading  Lesson 184 

2.  Lists  of  W^ords        -- ---  185 

3.  Transcription 185 

4.  Dictation          -         - 185 

5.  Formal  Spelling  Lessons         --------  185 

6.  General  Work* -  185 

7.  Composition    -         -         -         - -         -  185 

8.  Observation     -         -         -         -         -'-         -         -         -         -         -  185 

9.  Literature ----  18^ 

10.  Spelling  Contests -         -  185 

Faults  in  the  teaching  of  Spelling    --------  186 

Difficulties  in  Spelling     -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -186 

1.  Higher  Classes         ----------  186 

2.  Preparation  for  Class       -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -187 

3.  Lower  Classes          --. 187 

The  Classification  of  Difficult  Words 188 

Rules  for  Spelling             -         -         -         - -  189 

Transcription 190 

1.  Its  Functions  -----------  190 

2.  Its  Conditions           -- 190 

3.  Subject  Matter         -         -         - -191 

Dictation          -         -         - i^x 

1.  Its  Function     ---- 191 

2.  Subject  Matter         ----- iqi 

3.  Correction        ------ igi 

{a)  Individual  Correction  by  Teacher 191 

{d)  Monitorial  Correction      -- 192 

(t)  Inter-Correction 192 

(d)  Self-Correction         - -         -192 

4.  The  Moral  Side  of  Correction 192 

Notes  on  a  Dictation  Lesson  ---------  193 

1.  Class  Arrangement           -         -         -         - 1^3 

2.  Class  Preparation    - 193 

3.  Dictation 193 

4.  Correction       --- 1^3 

5.  Conclusion 194 

Examination  Questions 194 


xvi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

PAGE 

Writing   ---- 195 

Position  for  Writing        ----------  196 

1.  Body        ------ 196 

2.  Slates  or  Paper        --..-• 196 

3.  Light       ------------  196 

4.  Ink           ------------  196 

5.  Holding  the  Pen      ----------  196 

MULHAUSKK'S    METHOD     ----------  196 

Principles  of  Construction       -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  ^97 

Analysis  of  Movements  ----- 197 

Analysis  of  Letters  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -i97 

Method  of  Teaching        -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -198 

1.  Mechanical  Aids      ----------  198 

2.  Instruction  and  Practice 199 

3.  Classification  -----------  199 

{a)  Right  Line  Link  Class    --------  199 

(d)  Hook  Class      ----------  199 

(c)  Curve  Class      ----------  199 

(d)  Loop  Class i99 

(e)  Crotchet  Class          -         - i99 

(/)  Complex  Class i99 

4.  Criticism          -----------  199 

Questions  on  Mulhauser's  System    -         - 200 

Heights  of  Letters            - -         -         -         .  201 

Classification  of  Capital  Letters       -         - 201 

A  Scheme  of  Writing  for  Infant  Schools          --*---  203 

1.  Preparation     -----------  203 

2.  Plan  of  a  Lesson      --- 204 

3.  Order  of  Lessons     - 204 

The  Size  of  Writing         ----------  207 

1.  Small  Hand    ------ 207 

2.  Large  Hand    -----------  207 

Copies     -------- 207 

1.  Set  Copies       -         -         - 207 

2.  Engraved  Headlines 208 

3.  Copy  Slips       -----------  209 

Tracing            __.---------  209 

1.  Advantages      -         - -         -         -  209 

2.  Teaching          ----- 209 

3.  Disadvantages 210 

How  to  test  Writing        -         -         - 210 

Good  Writing          ----- 210 

1.  Its  Characteristics   ----- 210 

2.  How  Secured 210 

Points  to  be  noticed  in  Writing  Lessons 211 

Chief  Errors  in  Writing  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         "         -211 

How  to  deal  with  them         ---------  211 

Vertical  Writing 212 

Slates  or  Paper  ? ,"         '         "  212 

Manual  Employments  and  Writing 213 

RuHng  of  Slates   -         -         -         - 214 

Examination  Questions   ----- 216 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Geography       ------------  217 

Objects  of  Teaching  Geography      --------  217 

I.  Primary 217 


CONTENTS.  xvii 

PAGE 

(a)  Maps  and  Plans 217 

(d)  Trade  and  Commerce     -        - 217 

(c)  Literature         -.. 217 

{(i)  Emigration      -         .         . 217 

{e)  Naval  Power -         .  217 

2.  Secondary        -------....  217 

General  Principles  -------.-..  218 

1.  Illustration 218 

2.  Intelligence 218 

3.  Memory 218 

4.  Reasoning        ----- 219 

5.  Graduation       --.' 219 


6.   Realistic 


219 


First  Lessons  in  Geography 219 

Plans 220 

1.  Simple  Plans -        .        .  220 

(a)  First  Ideas -        -        .  221 

(^)  Transition  Objects  - -         -         .  222 

2.  Plans  to  Scale  -------...  222 

3.  Plans  of  the  School  and  District 223 

ia)  Plan  of  Classroom  -----..-.  223 

{d)  Plan  of  School -..  224 

{c)  Plan  of  School  District --  224 

4.  Maps  and  Plans      ----------  224 

5.  Difference  between  a  Map  and  a  Picture         -----  227 

How  to  teach  the  Points  of  the  Compass         ------  228 

Shape  and  Size  of  the  Earth    ---------  229 

1.  Shape      ------------  229 

2.  Size  ---------_..  229 

Geographical  Definitions         -        -        -        -        -        -        -        . ,       .  230 

Lesson  on  Capes     -----------  230 

Hills  and  Valleys -..-  231 

Mountains  ;  Notes  of  a  Lesson        --- 233 

Origin  of  Mountains 235 

1.  Upheaval  or  Elevation -  235 

2.  Depression        -        - :        .        .  235 

Rivers - -        .  236 

The  Build  of  a  Country -        -  236 

How  to  teach  Latitude  and  Longitude  ------  237 

A  Lesson  on  Day  and  Night  ---------  241 

Climate  -- ..-.  243 

1.  Meaning 243 

2.  Latitude 243 

3.  Elevation         -         - 244 

4.  Nature  of  the  Soil 244 

5.  Proximity  to  the  Sea 245 

6.  Rainfall 245 

7.  Prevailing  Winds 245 


Local  Circumstances 


245 


A  Lesson  on  Climate  as  influenced  by  Latitude    -         -         -         .  246 

Notes  of  a  Lesson  on  Trade  Winds        ---...-  248 

A  Lesson  on  Rain 250 

Further  Suggestions  on  the  Teaching  of  Geography        -        -        .        .  252 

Lessons  on  Towns 252 

Lessons  on  Railways 253 

Lessons  on  Articles  of  Commerce 253 

Lessons  on  Geographical  Apparatus 254 

The  Globe 255 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


1.  Its  principal  Uses    ----------  255 

2.  Preparatory  Lessons        ---------  255 

The  Comparative  Method        ---------  255 

Examination  Questions  ----------  256 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

History    -------------  258 

Value  of  History      -----------  258 

The  Objects  of  History    ----------  259 

General  Hints  on  the  Teaching  of  History      ------  259 

Difficulties  in  the  Teaching  of  History     -------  260 

Faults  in  the  Teaching  of  History  -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  261 

History  Books          .----------  262 

Stages  in  Teaching  History     ---------  262 

1.  Stories     ------------  262 

2.  Biographies -----  263 

3.  Incidents          -----------  263 

4.  Periods    ------------  264 

5.  Constitutional  History     ---------  264 

Lessons  on  Reigns            ----------  264 

1.  Their  Use        -----------  264 

2.  Method  of  Teaching        -        -        - 264 

(a)  The  Chronological  Method     -------  264 

{d)  The  Epoch  Method         --------  265 

(c)  The  Parliamentary  Method     -------  265 

{d)  The  Classification  Method       -------  265 

(<?)  The  Biographical  Method        -------  266 

(/)  The  Comparative  Method      -------  266 

Notes  of  Lessons  on  Biographies    --------  266 

Lesson  on  Walpole      ----------  267 

Dates  in  History      -----------  268 

The  Ballad  in  History     ----------  269 

1.  Its  Uses           -----------  269 

2.  Its  Description         ----------  270 

3.  The  Choice  of  Ballads     ---------  270 

{a)  For  the  Lower  Standards         -------  270 

id)  For  the  Higher  Standards       -------  271 

Battles     -------------  27T 

Our  Institutions -----  272 

Notes  of  a  Lesson  on  the  Policeman   -------  273 

Notes  of  a  Lesson  on  the  passing  of  a  Bill  through  Parliament   -         -  274 

Examination  Questions   ----------  276 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

English -------  277 

The  Uses  of  Grammar    ----------  277 

Difficulties  in  Teaching   ----------  277 

Order  of  Teaching  the  Parts  of  Speech   -------  278 

How  to  Teach  the  Predicate  ---------  280 

How  to  Teach  the  Adjective   -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         '  ^^ 

The  Adverb     ------'"'•""'  ^^ 

Pronouns         ------------  283 

How  to  Teach  the  Case  of  the  Relative  Pronoun  -----  284 

Moods  of  Verbs       -----------  285 

Lesson  on  the  Subjunctive  Mood          -------  ^°5 


Tense 


286 


A  First  Lesson  on  Tense      -        -        - 287 


CONTENTS.  xix 

PAGE 

Prepositions     ----- 288 

How  to  Teach  the  Preposition     -----...  289 

Parsing    ------- 289 

Its  Difficulties  and  how  to  deal  with  them    ------  289 

Simple  Parsing    --------...  291 

Intermediate  Form       --------..  291 

Advanced  Form  ----------  291 

Analysis  - --....  292 

A  Graduated  Scheme  of  Analysis -         -  292 

Notes  of  a  Lesson  on  the  Complex  Sentence        -----  292 

Word  Building        --------...  294 

1.  How  to  Teach  Word  Building        -------  294 

1^!  i:^S  }Native{    ;::::::    -94 

{c)  Latin  Elements        -------..  296 

{d)  Greek  Elements       -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         .  296 

2.  Word  Branching     ----------  296 

3.  Inductive  Lessons  -- 297 

Rules  of  Concord  --.- 297 

Notes  of  a  Lesson 298 


Punctuation 


2.  What  it  is 


Tests  of  their  Value 


299 


I.   Its  Object ------     299 


299 


3.  Method  of  Teaching        ---------  299 

4.  The  Full  Stop  or  Period 299 

5.  Other  Stops     ---------..  300 

6.  The  Semicolon        .         ---------  oqc 

7.  The  Comma  ;  Notes  of  a  Lesson 300 

The  Teaching  of  English  Literature        ----...  302 

The  Teaching  of  Composition         --------  303 

1.  Its  Requirements     -------.-.  303 

2.  Its  Teaching             ----------  303 

(a)  Oral  Composition    ---------  303 

{/>)  Written  Composition       -         -         - 30^ 

(4  Original  Composition       -         - 305 

3.  The  Correction  of  Composition       -------  30c 

Examination  Questions            -.-- 30^ 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Elementary  Science     -        - 308 

Advantages  of  studying  Elementary  Science    - 308 

Practical  Teaching           ----------  30^ 

Methods  of  Teaching  in  Elementary  Science           -        -        .        .        -  310 

1.  Observation     --- 3jq 

2.  Experiment --  310 

3.  Illustration       -         -         - -         -311 

(a)  Oral         -         -         - 3jj 

1.  Example 311 

2.  Analogy     -         - 312 

{d)  Pictorial           -- 312 

(c)  Material           -------...  312 


312 


4.  Classification  ----------  313 

5.  Reasoning        -------....  31^ 

{a)  Inductive  Reasoning 314 

(d)  Deductive  Reasoning 31^ 


PAGE 

Music        --------.... 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

1 

"■----  316 

Its  Value  in  Schools         ------....  055 

Its  Aim             ---------_..  017 

Classification  -------.....  oj„ 

The  Two  Notations  compared         ------..  317 

Voice  Training         -         -         -         -         -         -         -         .  .         -018 

The  Common  Scale         --------..  qjq 

1.  The  Starting  Point  ------...  oiq 

2.  Mental  Effects           -----....  oiq 

The  Modulator        -----------  320 

Early  Lessons  in  Tune    -------...  320 

How  to  arrange  a  School  Music  Class     -----..  321 

Ear  Training            -------....  321 

1.  Requirements  for  Success         - 322 

2.  Its  Stages         --------...  322 

(a)  Imitation         ------....  322 

[d]  Discrimination         ------...  322 

(V)  Dictation          -------...  322 

3.  Teaching         --. ^23 

Time  and  Tune  combined        -------..  024 

Time       ---------....  331- 

How  to  give  the  Idea  of  Time      ----....  325 

To  Teach  Accent          ---.. 326 

The  Time  Chart           -------...  326 

Plan  of  a  Lesson  on  Time   -        -        -        - 326 

Songs       -----------..  327 

A.  Choice  of  School  Songs  -------..  327 

1.  Suitable  Songs           ------...  327 

2.  Qualities  of  a  good  School  Song 327 

B.  How  to  Teach  a  School  Song          ---....  328 

1.  For  Young  Classes   ---------  328 

2.  For  Higher  Classes           -         -         -         -         -         -         -         -  328 

Part  Singing         ------.....  328 

1.  Its  Advantages          -----....  328 

2.  Its  Teaching     -------...  328 

Singing  Flat         --------...  329 


How  to  teach  Rounds 


329 


Defects  in  School  Singing        ------...  330 

Proper  Division  of  Time          -----....  330 

Qualifications  of  a  Conductor           ----....  330 

Choir  Efficiency       --.- 33J 

Examination  Questions 331 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


CHAPTER  I. 

SCHOOL  ECONOMY. 

Physiology  and  Education.— Physiology  appears  in  the  Code 
as  a  specific  subject,  and  as  an  appreciable  portion  of  Elementary 
Science  and  Domestic  Economy.  These  facts  emphasise  its  im- 
portance ;  but  the  special  object  attempted  here  is  to  explain  that 
importance  by  showing  the  mutually-interdependent  relations 
which  Education,  Psychology,  and  Physiology  bear  to  each  other. 

1.  The  Popular  View. — The  popular  mind  recognises  the  close  connection 
between  Education  and  Physiology  in  the  use  of  its  maxims  and  metaphors ; 
e.g. ,  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body ;  an  angry  man  is  said  to  have  had  his  dile 
stirred  up  ;  a  sad  or  morose  individual  is  said  to  be  melanckoly  [ntelan,  black  ; 
chole,  bile) ;  an  irritable  or  bad-tempered  person  often  throws  the  blame  on  his 
liver  or  nerves  ;  a  vindictive  creature  is  said  to  be  splenetic  ;  mercy  is  associated 
with  the  bmvels  (bowels  of  mercy),  and  the  gentler  emotions  with  the  heart 
(tender-hearted). 

2.  The  Scientific  View. — The  body  is  an  aggregate  of  organs.  Fatigue  the 
body  and  the  organs  suffer.  But  certain  organs  are  the  physiological  support 
of  the  brain,  hence  the  brain  suffers. 

Mental  activity  goes  with  physical  activity  ;  but  too  much  physical  exercise 
is  unfavourable  to  mental  work  and  mental  development.  Conversely,  too 
much  mental  activity  impairs  the  bodily  health,  as  is  seen  in  the  case  of  brain- 
workers  who  suffer  from  headaches,  nervous  disorders,  indigestion,  etc. 

Memory,  physiologically,  is  a  series  of  new  nervous  growths,  and  these 
nervous  growths  are  supported  by  nutrition,  which  is  a  physiological  process. 
Memory  is,  furthermore,  a  plastic  property  of  the  mind,  and  this  plasticity  may 
be  injured  by  too  little  or  too  nmch  work.  But  to  increase  this  plasticity  the 
brain  must  be  worked.  All  these  facts  show  that  if  the  teacher  is  to  treat  the 
subject  of  Education  scientifically  and  progressively,  he  must  be  well  grounded 
in  the  elementary  principles  and  truths  of  Physiology,  paying  special  attention 
to  that  part — nutrition — which  is  the  basis  of  support  to  all  the  organs  of  the 
body  ;  and  nutrition  is  a  branch  of  Domestic  Economy. 

Headaches  and  Faintness. — Headaches  arise  from  various 
causes,  which  may  require  separate  treatment.  They  may  arise 
from  diet,  or  from  an  impure  atmosphere ;  from  mental  causes, 
from  overwork,  or  from  physical  causes. 

1.  Food  Headaches. — Luxury  and  overfeeding  may  be,  but  in  elementary 
schools  rarely  are,  causes  of  headaches.     Over-indulgence  is  not  very  prevalent, 

I 

ti- 


-z  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

but  improper  diet  is  a  fruitful  source.  Costiveness  is  one  result,  and  this  causes 
an  undue  quantity  of  blood  to  flow  to  the  head,  which  generates  a  headache. 
Excessive  use  of  aperient  medicine,  and  hearty  suppers,  are  other  causes. 
Digestive  arrangements  cause  sick  headaches,  and,  generally,  anything  which 
tends  to  interfere  with  the  circulation  must  be  avoided.  As  a  remedy,  Domestic 
Economy  lessons  must  be  utilised  to  encourage  the  pupil  to  take  plenty  of  exer- 
cise ;  to  explain  the  nature  and  effects  of  stimulating  food  ;  to  avoid  all  foods 
which  make  too  much  flesh,  and  to  drink  water  only. 

2.  From  Impure  Atmosphere. — If  there  be  too  nmch  CO2  in  the  air,  giddi- 
ness sets  in.  The  pressure  of  the  CO2  in  the  air  retards  the  elimination  of  the 
CO2  from  the  lungs,  and  general  nutrition  is  impaired.  A  headache  is  then  one 
of  the  results.  Coke  fires  give  off  CO2,  which  displaces  O  from  the  red  cor- 
puscles, impoverishes  the  blood,  and  causes  headaches.  Sulphurous  acid, 
which  is  always  in  the  air  of  towns,  and  near  fires,  is  also  bad.  Organic  putres- 
cible  matter  which  is  breathed  forth  from  the  lungs,  exhalations  from  sickly 
boys,  and  the  foetid  smell  arising  from  damp  clothing  all  taint  the  air  and  pro- 
duce headaches.  Foul  gases  from  bad  drainage  and  damp  basements,  the  dust 
in  the  air,  chalk  dust  and  similar  impurities,  and  an  overheated  temperature  are 
other  causes.  The  remedy  is  to  seek  the  cause,  and  if  possible  remove  it.  The 
lessons  on  health  should  lead  to  prevention,  but  some  of  these  causes  will  be 
beyond  the  teacher's  control.  Pure  air  and  a  proper  diet,  however,  always  tend 
to  cure. 

3.  From  Mental  Causes. — The  child  may  be  overworked.  The  lessons  may 
be  too  exacting  for  the  constitution  of  some.  The  excitement  of  examinations, 
anxiety,  worry,  etc.,  will  all  produce  headache  at  times.  In  such  cases  the 
teacher  should  shorten  the  hours  of  study,  recommend  more  exercise,  and  the 
keeping  of  the  body  well  nourished. 

4.  From  Physical  Causes. — These  will  include  such  things  as  tight  lacing, 
tight  collars,  tight  boots,  etc. ,  too  little  or  too  much  muscular  exercise,  insomnia. 
The  quantity  of  sleep  required  depends  very  largely  on  the  work  and  tempera- 
ment of  each  individual.  The  sufferers  should  be  advised  to  dress  reasonably, 
to  regulate  the  quantity  of  exercise  taken,  and  to  indulge  in  a  fair  amount  of 
sleep. 

IiIGtHT. — "  Light  goes  with  knowledge,  and  assists  to  develop 

mental  power." 

1.  Direction  of  Light. 

(i)  It  must  not  come  direct  from  the  front.     This  is  its  worst  direction. 

(2)  It  should  come  from  a  point  on  either  side,  the  le//  being  the  best, 

especially  for  class  rooms.     All  other  windows  in  class  rooms  should 
be  regarded  as  supplementary,  or  for  summer  ventilation. 

(3)  Or,  it  should  come  from  a  point  above  the  shoulder. 

(4)  Or,  from  behind. 

(s)  It  must  not  enter  from  both  sides  of  the  room,  unless  the  room  is  very 
large.  At  the  same  time,  no  school  should  be  lighted  from  one  side 
only,  but  the  gable  ends  should  be  fully  utilised  for  light. 

2.  Diffusion  of  Light. 

(i)  Light  should  be  equally  diffused  throughout  the  room. 

(2)  The  main  light  should  be  from  the  north,  because  it  is  steadier  and 

cooler. 

(3)  The  light  should  be  abundant,  but  aU  glare  should  be  avoided.     Hence 

southern  windows  are  not  the  best,   although  there  should   be  one 
southern  window  for  cheerfulness. 

(4)  The  colour  of  the  walls  should  assist,  and  grey  is  best  for  this  purpose. 

All  kinds  of  glazing  which  diminish  the  light  and  are  troublesome  to 
keep  in  repair  should  be  avoided. 

(5)  The  sills  of  the  main  lighting  windows  should  be  placed  about  four  feet 

above  the  floor,  and  the  tops  of  some  should  always  reach  nearly  to 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY.  3 

the  ceiling.  In  fact,  the  higher  the  windows  rise  to  the  ceiling,  the 
better  for  light  and  ventilation.  A  dim  religious  light  may  be  good  for 
sentiment,  but  it  is  bad  for  health.  If  the  windows  can  be  placed  six 
or  seven  feet  above  the  ground,  so  much  the  better,  for  the  diffusion 
of  light  is  better,  and  shadows  are  avoided. 

(6)  When  windows  are  low,  side  lights  are  preferable,  and  the  left  side  is 

always  the  best. 

(7)  A  domed  roof  is  best  for  light,  whilst  flat  skylights  should  be  protected 

by  proper  blinds. 

(8)  A  large  portion  of  each  window  should  be  made  to  open  for  ventilation 

and  cleaning. 
3.  Artificial  Light. — Wall  lights  are  bad,  because  the  air  soon  becomes  im- 
paired. Cross  lights  are  to  be  avoided,  because  they  multiply  shadows.  Gas 
is  not  a  desirable  form  of  lighting  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  although  the 
incandescent  gaslight  system  is  a  great  advance  in  this  form  of  lighting.  The 
electric  light  would  be  an  improvement. 

VSINTHjATION. — The  teacher  should  be  acquainted  with  its 

main  principles. 

1.  Its  Difficulties. — These  arise  from  various  causes, 
(i)  The  different  forms  of  building  in  use. 

'(2)  The  aspect  of  the  rooms. 

(3)  The  nature,  size,  and  position  of  the  surrounding  objects. 

(4)  The  difference  of  constitution,  temperament,  and  health. 

(5)  From  overcrowding. 

It  will  be  easily  understood  that  what  may  be  a  good  arrangement  for  one 
building  may  fail  to  suit  another.  If  the  windows  face  the  prevailing  winds, 
and  these  happen  to  be  of  an  unfavourable  nature,  then  further  difficulties  are 
raised.  High  buildings,  objectionable  factories,  etc.,  when  near,  are  all  serious 
considerations.  But  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  is  the  negligence  of 
many  to  use  the  means  at  their  disposal  for  good  ventilation. 

2.  Cubic  Space. — Cubic  space  is  but  little  guide  in  school  statistics,  for  the 
number  of  children  a  room  can  accommodate  depends  on  several  things  which 
do  not  enter  into  the  usual  considerations  of  these  matters.  Furthermore,  the 
age  of  the  children  is  an  important  factor.  The  Department  recommends  the 
following  desk  space : — 

18  inches  for  each  junior  desk. 

22  ,,  senior     ,, 

18  ,,    the  gangway. 

But  on  the  point  of  health  this  is  not  satisfactory.  We  each  breathe  about 
16  times  a  minute,  or  960  times  in  an  hour,  and  every  breath  helps  to  vitiate 
the  air.  Each  adult  destroys  i6'6  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour,  100  times  that 
quantity  per  hour  being  required  to  keep  the  air  pure.  Remember  that  three 
scholars  equal  two  adults.  Now,  in  pure  air  we  have  '04  of  CO.2,  and  i  per 
cent,  will  give  a  headache,  whilst  4  per  cent,  would  be  fatal.  When  too  much 
CO2  is  produced  a  foetid  smell  arises,  and  this  is  the  result  of  overcrowding  or 
bad  ventilation.  Other  evils  are  the  raising  of  the  temperature  and  the  pro- 
duction of  draughts.  Each  individual  requires  2800  cubic  feet  per  hour.  All 
impurity  nmst  be  removed  from  the  air.  Draughts  must  be  prevented,  and 
cold  air  must  be  warmed  as  admitted. 

3.  Means  of  Ventilation. 

(i)  Doors  and  Windows.— All  windows  should  be  made  to  open  top  and 
bottom  ;  a  slight  opening  both  top  and  bottom  being  effectual.  Win- 
dows are  best  for  ventilation,  and  the  window  space  should  be  at  least 
one-fifth  of  the  wall  space.  A  small  swing  window,  as  far  from  the 
lighting  windows  as  possible,  and  near  the  ceiling,  is  important. 

(2)  Gratings. — These  can  be  used  in  connection  with  fireplaces  and  stoves. 

(3)  Shafts. — Shafts  like  the  vertical  shaft  ventilators  can  be  used.     For  the 

admission  of  fresh  air  a  Tobin  ventilating  shaft  in  the  corner  of  the 


4  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

room  is  recommended.  It  should  communicate  below  with  the  outer 
air,  and  open  about  seven  feet  above  the  floor,  so  as  to  introduce  a 
current  of  air  where  no  draught  will  be  felt  by  the  head. 

{4)  Ventilators. — The  principal  use  of  these  is  to  prevent  the  collection 
of  stagnant  air.  There  are  many  good  kinds  in  the  market,  in- 
cluding the  cowl  ventilator,  Arnot's  Balance  Valve,  and  the  Louvre 
Ventilators. 

(5)  Fireplaces. — A  wide  open  chimney  is  desirable  in  small  rooms,  but  they 
are  unsatisfactory  in  large  rooms.  Ordinary  closed  stoves  are  bad. 
There  should  be  provision  for  the  outlet  of  foul  air  at  the  highest  point 
of  the  room.  This  can  be  best  done  by  building  to  each  room  a 
separate  air  chimney,  carried  up  in  the  same  stack  as  the  smoke  flues. 
An  outlet  should  always  be  warmed  in  some  manner,  or  it  will  frequently 
act  as  a  cold  inlet.  The  exits  for  foul  air  should  be  greater  than  the 
entrances  for  pure  air. 

WARMING-. — The  warming  should  be  moderate,  and  evenly 
distributed,  so  as  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  from  56°  to  60°  F. 
When  a  corridor  or  lobby  is  warmed,  the  rooms  are  more  easily 
dealt  with,  and  are  less  liable  to  cold  draughts.  Where  schools 
are  wholly  warmed  by  hot  water,  the  principle  of  direct  radiation 
is  recommended.  In  such  cases  open  grates  are  occasionally 
useful  for  extra  warming,  and  their  flues  for  ventilation  always. 
Stoves  can  only  be  allowed  if  they  are  provided  with  proper  chim- 
neys, and  are  found  not  to  contaminate  the  air,  or  to  render  it  too 
dry. 

The  Thermometer. — The  walls  of  a  school  should  never  be 
allowed  to  cool  down  below  45°  F.  night  or  day.  An  equitable  and 
suitable  temperature  is  a  great  desideratum  for  warming.  The 
thermometer  should  not  be  hung  near  a  fireplace  or  stove,  nor  in 
the  direction  of  any  draught,  nor  in  too  close  contact  with  gas.  It 
may  be  hung  upon  a  wall  as  near  the  centre  of  the  room  as  pos- 
sible, provided  it  does  not  infringe  any  of  the  above  suggestions. 
It  must  be  hung  where  it  will  give  the  best  measure  of  the  average 
temperature  of  the  room,  and  this  will  depend  very  largely  upon 
the  plan  or  shape  of  the  room,  and  its  locality. 

Gleaning. — The  following  suggestions  apply  to  the  school,  and 
not  to  the  home  : — 

1.  The  school  should  be  swept  and  dusted  each  day. 

2.  The  floor  should  be  scrubbed  every  few  weeks. 

3.  The  windows  should  be  cleaned  as  often  as  the  weather  and  other  cir- 
cumstances make  it  necessary ;  but  in  any  case  once  a  quarter. 

4.  Stoves  and  fireplaces  should  be  cleaned  weekly.  When  fires  cease,  the 
stoves,  etc.,  should  be  fresh  painted. 

5.  The  walls  should  be  swept  down  once  a  month  (oftener  in  some  cases), 
and  the  pictures,  maps,  and  diagrams  dusted.  All  framed  pictures  should  be 
washed  once  or  twice  a  year. 

6.  Every  three  to  seven  years,  depending  on  the  neighbourhood  and  use  of 
the  schoolrooms,  the  whole  building  should  be  painted  inside  and  out. 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY.  5 

Drill. — Drill  is  perhaps  the  chief  recognised  means  of  promot- 
ing Physical  Education  in  the  school,  whilst  the  encouragement 
and  carrying  out  of  games  is  the  chief  means  outside  the  school. 
Both  are  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  a  good  standard  of 
health. 

I.  Its  Objects.— These  may  be  briefly  enumerated  as  follows  : 

1.  To  promote  an  improved  blood  circulation. 

2.  To  take  away  from  the  muscular  system  a  tendency  to  improper  con- 
traction. 

3.  To  aid  in  the  formation  of  proper  habits  of  subjection. 

4.  To  act  as  a  check  against  absent-mindedness. 

5.  To  promote  a  love  of  order. 

6.  To  afford  an  easy  and  effectual  mode  of  promoting  habits  of  prompt 
obedience. 

7.  To  harden  and  develop  the  muscular  system  generally.  To  improve  the 
health  by  a  proper  action  of  all  the  organs. 

A  consideration  of  the  above  will  show  the  two  main  functions  of  drill  to  V^e 
a  cleansing  process  and  development.  Its  influence  is  very  wide,  for  it  makes 
healthy  subjects  and  law-abiding  citizens.  It  quickens  the  actions,  and  the 
mind  sometimes,  and  so  makes  better  men  of  business.  It  encourages  habits 
of  neatness,  promptness,  cleanliness,  ready  obedience,  and  order.  It  develops 
a  love  of  action,  which  finds  vent  in  our  national  games,  and  so  acts  as  a  great 
moral  agent. 

n.    Greneral     Principles     and     Rules. — These     are    largely 

gathered  from  observing  children  at  play. 

1.  Movements  should  not  be  confined  to  arms  alone.  The  various  postures 
into  which  children  unconsciously  throw  themselves  show  the  necessity  of  exer- 
cise for  every  part  of  the  body. 

2.  No  one  part  of  the  body  should  be  exercised  too  long.  Children  illus- 
trate this  law  by  their  constant  change  of  games. 

3.  Begin  with  easy  movements  first ;  then  follow  with  the  more  fatiguing 
ones  ;  i.e. ,  the  training  should  be  gradual. 

4.  The  lessons  should  be  frequent  and  regular.  A  few  minutes  each  day  is 
better  than  one  long  lesson  per  week.  In  fine  weather  use  the  playground  ;  in 
bad  weather,  the  largest  room. 

5.  The  children  must  be  suitably  dressed.  Tight  fitting  garments  are 
injurious. 

6.  Respiration  should  be  perfectly  free  during  exercise;  the  chest  well 
expanded,  the  head  erect.  A  child  suddenly  getting  red  in  the  face  should  be 
told  to  breathe  freely,  as  checked  or  impeded  respiration  is  often  the  cause  of 
the  raised  colour. 

7.  Pallor  is  a  sign  that  the  exercise  is  too  severe.  Withdraw  such  children 
immediately. 

8.  Each  movement  has  a  definite  aim  in  the  physical  education  of  the  body. 
Teachers  should  strive  to  achieve  this  aim  by  insisting  on  precision  and 
steadiness  of  movement. 

9.  The  children  should  stand  at  arm's  length  from  each  other. 

10.  (iive  a  few  seconds'  rest  between  each  movement. 

11.  The  teacher  should  correctly  perform  each  new  movement  before  com- 
manding it  to  the  class. 

12.  Corrections  should  be  short  and  clear.  They  should  be  made  when 
children  are  resting. 

13.  Each  movement  should  be  repeated  three  or  four  times. 

14.  The  "  word  of  attention,"  which  tells  children  what  movement  is  to  be 
taken,  should  be  given  in  a  calm,  descriptive  manner. 

15.  The  "  word  of  execution"  should  be  given  in  a  sharp,  decisive  manner 
as  a  rule. 


6  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

THE   PliAYGROUND. 

I.  Physical  Uses. — A  playground  is  the  lung  of  a  school.  It 
is  as  essential  to  a  proper  and  efficient  education  as  the  school- 
room itself.  It  is  the  workshop  for  the  manufacture  of  the  sound 
body,  as  the  schoolroom  is  for  the  sound  mind.  It  offers  relief 
after  mental  work,  and  brings  into  play  the  overcramped  muscles. 
It  is  a  healthy  agency  for  the  overflow  of  that  abundant  spon- 
taneity of  child  life,  which  may  become  so  troublesome  to  disci- 
pline if  not  regulated. 

II.  Its  Fittings. — A  playground  should  be  fitted  with  gymnas- 
tic apparatus,  like  the  giant-stride,  parallel  bars,  etc.,  and  a  drmking 
fountain.  One  portion  should  always  be  covered  in  to  meet  cases 
of  bad  weather.  Offices  should  be  provided,  and  should  meet  all 
requirements  of  cleanliness,  decency,  and  accommodation.  It 
should  be  well  detached  from  the  street  (in  towns),  by  a  high  wall, 
by  position,  or  by  both.  If  large,  around  its  edges  and  near  the 
walls,  a  narrow  strip  might  be  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  shrubs, 
flowers,  etc.  It  should  be  asphalted  if  possible,  and  drained  by 
the  placing  of  small  sinks,  and  the  slight  sloping  of  the  playground 
towards  them. 

III.  Its  Moral  Uses. — It  brings  brightness  to  the  school  life, 
and  helps  to  engender  a  love  for  school  by  making  it  popular.  It 
is  a  fine  training  ground  for  the  emotions.  Boys  learn  to  disci- 
pline themselves  in  their  sport,  to  submit  their  wills  to  the  will  of 
others.  It  is  a  great  leveller  and  compensating  force  ;  for  the 
dullard  may  be  a  physical  adept.  He  wins  in  the  playground  that 
respect  which  he  cannot  attain  in  the  school ;  for  muscle  is  wor- 
shipped as  much  as  brain.  The  bully  is  checked,  the  timid  and 
shy  get  nerve  and  confidence  by  means  of  the  playground's  super- 
vised play. 

rv.  The  Teacher's  Work. — Gymnastics  should  be  encouraged 
by  the  teacher,  and,  in  the  case  of  boys,  a  little  instruction  might 
be  given.  Supervision  should  always  be  exercised.  The  presence 
of  the  teacher  will  often  tempt  a  boy  to  try  something  which  other- 
wise might  be  beyond  his  inclination.  Games  calculated  to  de- 
velop their  strength,  to  give  muscular  control,  to  aid  the  growth 
of  the  will,  such  as  our  popular  games,  should  be  encouraged, 
sometimes  shared,  and  sometimes  directed  by  the  teacher.  Many 
now  form  and  take  an  active  interest  in  the  cricket,  football,  and 
swimming  clubs  of  their  scholars,  and  they  do  not  find  it  unpro- 
ductive labour. 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY.  7 

FURNITURE. — Students  are  expected  to  know  something 
about  the  furnishing  of  a  workman's  home,  and  to  offer  sound 
opinions  on  it.  Their  knowledge  is  also  expected  to  extend  to  the 
school  furniture,  hence  this  is  thought  a  convenient  place  for  dealing 
with  several  of  the  more  important  articles  found  in  a  school,  such 
as  the  school  museum,  desks,  galleries,  and  wall  decorations. 

The  School  Museum. — Every  school  should  contain  its 
museum,  which  should  be  formed  by  the  pupils  and  staff  so  far  as 
its  contents  are  concerned,  and  should  not  be  purchased.  The 
managers  should  supply  the  cupboard  only.  It  should  not  be 
turned  into  a  lumber  cupboard,  or  it  will  smother  all  interest  in 
itself.  The  objects  of  choice  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  district. 
Regard  should  be  paid  to  local  requirements  and  local  scenery. 
These  considerations  will  regulate  the  choice  of  the  special  objects 
for  the  museum,  whilst  there  will  always  be  a  number  of  objects 
which  may  find  a  place,  and  these  may  be  called  the  general 
objects. 

1.  Special  Objects. — These  should  be  classified  : — 

{a)  Animal  Kingdom. — There  should  be  specimens  of  local  birds  and  their 
eggs,  of  insects,  fish,  classified  feathers,  bills  or  beaks,  feet,  etc.,  of 
birds,  and  so  on. 

{b)  Vegetable  Kingdom. — There  should  be  a  collection  of  wild  flowers  be- 
longing to  the  district,  properly  pressed  and  classified.  There  should 
also  be  carefully  prepared  specimens  of  the  leaf,  the  flower,  the  fruit 
of  the  trees,  the  ferns,  the  grasses,  weeds,  cereals  of  the  district  ;  sea 
weed  (if  near  the  sea). 

{c)  Mineral  Kingdom. — There  should  be  illustrations  of  the  geological 
formation  of  the  district.  Models  of  the  district  should  be  made  and 
contributed  by  the  teachers  or  scholars.  If  the  school  is  near  the  sea, 
there  should  be  typical  stones  and  shells  from  the  sea  shore. 

{d)  Manufactures. — The  local  manufactures  (if  any)  should  be  illustrated  as 
much  as  possible.  The  material  used  should  be  shown  in  its  various 
stages.  Models  of  machines  might  be  made,  and  models  or  specimens 
of  tools.  If  the  town  is  a  port,  there  should  be  models  of  the  various 
kinds  of  ships  and  boats,  and  the  boys  should  be  taught  to  distinguish 
the  craft  by  name  (sloop,  barque,  etc.) ;  to  know  the  flags  of  the  chief 
countries,  and  for  this  purpose  a  picture  of  flags  should  be  placed  in 
the  schoolroom.  If  a  mining  town,  the  same  method  should  be  pur- 
sued with  the  mine. 

{e)  Antiquities. — There  should  be  drawings,  photographs,  and  specimens 
illustrating  the  antiquities  and  historical  associations  of  near  places. 

2.  Greneral  Objects. 

(«)  Scientiflc  Apparatus. — By  this  is  meant  apparatus  for  object  lessons 
and  science  lessons,  and,  where  possible,  this  apparatus  should  be 
made  by  the  pupils. 

{h)  Commercial  Specimens. — These  would  include  specimens  of  the  chief 
exports  and  imports.  Where  these  are  objects  of  manufacture,  they 
should  illustrate  the  whole  process  from  the  raw  material  to  the  finished 
article.     The  specimens  must  be  limited  to  the  chief  only,  and  they 


8  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

should  be  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  i.e.,  our  greatest 
import,  export,  and  manufacture  should  have  their  specimens  respec- 
tively occupying  the  chief  places  of  their  class. 

{c)  Common  Objects. — These  should  be  limited  to  the  commonest  specimens 
of  the  three  productive  kingdoms — animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral. 
Specimens  of  the  chief  woods,  the  chief  rocks,  etc. ,  should  be  arranged 
in  the  order  of  their  importance.  Object  lesson  materials,  in  so  far  as 
they  are  not  what  are  technically  known  as  "  Scientific,"  should  also 
find  a  place. 

[d)  Inventions. — It  might  also  be  made  a  receptacle  for  the  inventive  facul- 
ties of  the  children,  to  encourage  production  according  to  the  special 
tastes  and  talents  of  the  pupils,  and  for  this  purpose  the  selection  need 
not  be  wholly  scientific. 

3.  Its  Value. 

{a)  It  is  economical,  because  it  supplies  concrete  or  objective  information  to 
the  pupil  with  the  least  expenditure,  generally,  of  time  and  trouble. 

{b)  It  trains  the  attention  by  fixing  it  and  bringing  interest  to  its  aid. 

{c)  It  stimulates  observation,  and  the  habit  of  care  which  this  involves  reacts 
on  and  influences  all  their  other  work. 

{d)  A  love  of  natui-e  is  encouraged,  and  followed  by  widened  sympathies 
and  enjoyments.  In  this  way  it  may  prove  a  stepping  stone  to  a  love 
of  knowledge,  gained  by  the  most  productive  and  the  most  pleasurable 
means. 

{e)  It  affords  scope  for  hand  and  eye  training;  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
senses  by  the  manufacture  of  models  and  apparatus. 

(/)  It  is  a  fine  disciplinary  aid.  The  children  love  such  work,  and  by  asso- 
ciation get  to  like  their  school,  and  to  take  a  real  pride  and  interest  in  it. 

{g)  It  widens  their  vocabulary.  The  things  observed  and  described  call 
into  use  exact  and  correct  language,  which  improves  their  power  of 
composition. 

Gralleries. — Infant  children  receive  many  lessons  upon  gal- 
leries, hence  it  is  necessary  that  each  should  be  properly  con- 
structed and  properly  placed.  They  are  rarely  found  now  anywhere 
but  in  Infant  Departments.  They  are  conducive  to  noise  very 
often,  and  for  that  reason  are  not  an  unmixed  blessing  in  the  prin- 
cipal rooms.  If  the  room  is  large,  and  the  galleries  are  placed  as 
far  apart  as  possible,  the  noise  is  minimised  ;  but  a  separate  class 
room  is  the  best  place  for  a  gallery.  On  galleries  for  older  chil- 
dren desks  might  be  placed,  and  then  the  front  desk  could  rest  on 
the  floor.  In  fact,  a  gallery  then  differs  very  little  from  the  desk- 
fitted,  stepped  floors  of  the  modern  Board  Schools. 

The  construction  of  the  gallery  will  depend  somewhat  upon 
where  its  place  is,  and  its  size  also.  In  a  class  room  it  may  be 
larger  than  in  a  principal  room.  A  gallery  usually  contains  five 
parallel  seats,  each  rising  above  the  other  like  steps.  Each  seat 
is  about  14  or  15  feet  long,  depending  on  the  number  of  children 
it  is  intended  to  seat.  It  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  allow  the 
youngest  children  seats  at  the  bottom.  The  following  dimensions 
are  recommended  :  — 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY.  g 

(i)  The  rise  of  the  seat  for  the  youngest  child  should  not  be  greater  than 

7  inches. 

(2)  This  should  be  increased  each  7-ow  by  half  an  inch  for  the  varying  ages 

and  sizes  of  the  children, 

(3)  There  should  be  a  gangway  up  either  side,  allowing  plenty  of  room  for 

either  teacher  or  children  to  ascend  or  descend.     Sometimes  there  is 
one  central  gangway,  but  this  is  not  so  good  as  the  other  method. 

(4)  There  should  be  a  sloping  back  fitted  to  each  seat  for  the  infants,  about 

8  inches  high. 

(a)  It  is  necessary  for  health. 

(b)  It  leaves  the  child  the  free  use  of  its  arms.     A  higher  one  would  not. 

(c)  It  protects  the  child  from  the  restless  feet  of  those  on  the  seat  above. 

(5)  Each  step  should  be  nearly   2  feet  wide,  and  the  seat   should   be    so 

placed  as  to  leave  at  least  a  foot  behind. 

(6)  The  walls  should  be  boarded  near  the  gallery. 

(7)  There  should  be  a  hand  i-ail  suited  to  the  size  of  the  children,  and 

placed  on  the  exposed  side  of  the  gallery.     If  both  sides  are  exposed, 
then  there  should  be  a  railing  on  either  side. 

Desks.  I.  Infant  Departments. — Desks  are  used  in  these 
departments  for  writing  or  for  kindergarten.  No  desks  are  required 
for  the  youngest. 

The  height  varies  from  17^  to  19^  inches ;  the  seats,  from  io|  to  11^  inches. 
The  back  rests  should  be  curved,  and  the  centre  of  support  should  be  about 
7  inches  above  the  seat.  The  top  of  the  desk  should  be  flat.  It  suits  for 
kindergarten,  but  not  for  writing,  hence  the  tops  should  be  adjustable  so  that 
they  could  be  made  horizontal  or  angular  as  recjuired. 

H.  Other  Departments. — The  London  School  Board  issue 
some  general  rules  on  this  subject,  as  laid  down  by  their  medical 
officer. 

1.  The  seat  should  not  be  so  high  as  to  prevent  the  child  rest- 
ing its  feet  upon  the  floor,  or  on  a  footboard,  and  if  the  latter  the 
knees  should  not  be  elevated. 

In  those  classes  where  the  scholars  change  places,  the  height  of  the  seat 
should  be  capable  of  regulation  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  pupils. 

2.  Assuming  a  child  to  be  sitting  upright  in  his  seat,  and  the 

arms  to  be  hanging  freely  down,  the  edge  of  the  desk  next  the  body 

should  be  about  an  inch  higher  than  the  level  of  the  elbows  in  the 

boys,  and  from  i^o  I'i  inches  in  the  girls. 

If  the  desk  be  higher  than  this,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  body  to  be 
twisted,  for  one  shoulder  to  be  raised  above  the  other,  with  the  consequent  risk 
of  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine. 

3.  A  line  dropped  from  the  edge  of  the  desk  ought  to  strike  the 

edge  of  the  seat,  or  at  a  point  an  mch  or  two  within  it. 

This  arrangement  obliges  the  child  to  assume  an  upright  position,  which  is 
best  both  for  the  eyes  and  the  spine. 

4.  No  seat  should  be  without  a  back,  and  the  top  of  this  should 
be  one  inch  lower  than  the  edge  of  the  desk  for  boys,  and  one  inch 
higher  than  the  edge  of  the  desk  for  girls. 


10  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

In  schools  which  are  graded,  great  inequalities  will  be  found  in  the  size  of 
the  scholars  in  each  room,  to  meet  which  it  would  be  desirable  to  provide  three 
sizes  of  desks.  In  schools  of  mixed  ages  there  should  be  a  large  number  of 
sizes. 

5.  The  desk  must  not  be  flat.  It  should  sHghtly  incline  towards 
the  child. 

6.  The  seat  should  not  be  flat,  but  saddle-shaped.  Change  of 
position  will  be  desirable. 

7.  The  desks  must  be  easy  of  access,  yet  compactly  arranged. 
The  angle  of  vision  for  the  teacher  should  not  be  more  than  45". 

Height  and  Dimensions. 

(i)  The  sloping  part  of  the   top   should   be   not   less   than    12   inches   in 
width. 

(2)  The  inclination  should  be  about  2  inches,  and  the  slope  shouM  be  about 

I  in  10. 

(3)  The  flat  portion  of  the  desk  with  the  groove  should  be  from  3  to  3^ 

inches  in  width. 

(4)  The  proper  height  allows  the  forearm  of  the  seated  child  to  rest  horizon- 

tally upon  it  without  discomfort. 
(a)  Youngest  children     -        -        20"  to  25"  to  the  middle  of  the  slope. 
(6)  Intermediate  children        -        22"  to  26"  ,, 

(c)  Oldest  scholars  -        -        -        30"  to  36"  ,, 

The  seat  should  be  16^  inches  high. 

(5)  The  back  rail  should  be  not  more  than  7  inches  for  younger  children, 

and  not  more  than  10  inches  for  the  older  ones. 

(6)  The  minimum  space  for  each  child  should  be  20  inches,  and  22  inches 

would  be  better. 

(7)  The  width  of  the  gangway  should  be  18  inches  at  least. 

(8)  The  seats  should  be  8  inches  wide. 

Best  Position  in  the  Desk. 

(i)  Sit  erect. 

(2)  Keep  the  eyes  in  a  parallel  line  with  the  surface  of  the  desk. 

(3)  Keep  the  shoulders  at  equal  heights. 

(4)  Keep  the  elbows  close  to  the  side,  and  not  resting  upon  the  desk. 

(5)  Weakly  and  delicate  children  should  have  a  support  for  the  whole  of 

the  back. 

Schoolroom  Decoration. 

1.  Walls. — These  should  be  clean,  and  painted  a  light  French 
grey  or  pale  buff.  The  lower  part  should  be  of  wood  panelling, 
or,  better  still,  of  dark  glazed  bricks,  so  as  to  form  a  dado. 

2.  Windows. — There  should  be  an  abundance  of  window- 
space.  Nothing  tends  to  brighten  a  room  like  this.  The  blinds 
should  be  well-kept  and  clean,  and  the  frameworks  should  be  regu- 
larly painted. 

3.  Pictures. —  Pictures  of  foreign  scenes  are  interesting  and 
instructive,  especially  those  dealing  with  primitive  forms  of  life,  like 
the  African,  the  Indian,  and  the  Esquimaux.  A  few  good  pictures, 
copies  of  our  best  masters'  works,  might  be  added.     Historic  pic- 


SCHOOL  ECONOMY.  ii 

tures  are  very  interesting  to  children,  and  are  all  the  brighter  for 
being  coloured.  Pictures  of  trades,  brightly  coloured,  are  also 
very  instructive,  and  very  interesting,  whilst  a  few  well-chosen 
Scripture  prints  should  always  find  a  place. 

4.  Maps. — Picture  maps  are  bright  and  instructive,  preparing 
the  way  for  the  ordinary  maps.  Of  those  hanging  on  the  walls, 
the  ordinary  ones  should  be  bright-coloured,  and  should  be  re- 
moved as  soon  as  they  become  dilapidated  or  dirty.  In  such  a 
condition  they  are  little  good  mentally,  and  positively  bad  morally. 
A  few  blank  maps  should  be  included  among  the  wall  decorations. 

5.  Diagrams. — These  will  include  geographical  diagrams  for 
the  teaching  of  definitions  ;  astronomical  diagrams  for  lessons  on 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  ;  botanical  diagrams  for  botany  lessons  ; 
mechanical  diagrams  for  lessons  on  mechanics  ;  zoological,  for 
lessons  on  animals,  and  so  on.  The  choice  of  these  diagrams  will 
be  regulated  by  the  school  curriculum. 

6.  Honour  Board. — This  should  form  a  most  appreciated 
portion  of  the  wall  decorations  of  a  school. 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Write  out  some  of  the  chief  principles  to  be  observed  in  the  lighting  and 
ventilation  of  schoolrooms. 

2. — What  directions  would  you  give  for  the  daily  and  weekly  cleaning  of  a  school- 
room ?     What  additional  cleaning  is  needed  at  longer  intervals  ? 

3. — What  are  the  objects  of  school  drill?  Show  that  it  has  an  influence  upon  the 
character  of  children  and  their  behaviour  out  of  school. 

4. — What  do  you  consider  to  be  the  uses  of  a  playground,  and  how  would  you  en- 
deavour to  make  it  subservient  to  the  discipline  of  a  school  ?  To  what  extent  (if  any) 
would  you  take  a  personal  part  in  the  children's  play  ? 

5. — What  kind  of  desks  would  you  like  to  find  in  any  schoolroom  in  which  you 
might  have  to  teach  writing  ?     Give  the  ground  of  your  preference. 

6. — What  sort  of  objects  would  you  desire  to  collect  in  a  school  museum,  and  how 
would  you  classify  them  and  use  them  ? 

7.— Describe  the  proper  height  and  size  of  desks:  (i)  for  an  infant  school;  and  (2) 
for  a  school  of  older  children.  Say  how  desks  ought  to  be  placed  in  reference  to  the 
light. 

8. — Give  a  list  of  the  maps,  pictures,  diagrams,  and  apparatus  which  you  think  ought 
to  be  provided  in  a  well-furnished  schoolroom. 

9. — What  sort  of  decoration  is  most  appropriate  in  a  schoolroom,  and  most  likely  to 
make  it  bright  and  attractive  to  the  scholars  ? 

10. — What  rules  should  be  adopted  by  a  teacher  in  order  to  keep  the  schoolroom  per- 
fectly healthy  and  clean  ? 

II. — Describe  the  best  system  you  know  of  drill  and  physical  exercise  for  young 
children  (a)  in  the  schoolroom  ;  (b)  or  in  the  playground  ;  and  say  what  sort  of  apparatus 
would  be  of  the  most  service  in  such  exercises. 

12. — Describe  the  most  healthful  and  useful  exercises  in  drill  which  you  have  seen, 
and  say  how  you  would  conduct  them. 


CHAPTER  II. 

DISCIPLINE. 

I.  VThat  it  is. — You  know  a  tree  by  its  fruit,  and  Discipline 
is  known  by  its  results. 

1.  It  must  be  based  on  Natural  Principles. — It  must  recog- 
nise the  child's  love  of  activity  and  curiosity,  and  it  must  under- 
stand that  these  and  similar  impulses  may  lead  the  child  to  do 
injurious  things.  It  must  recognise  the  weakness  of  a  child's 
intelligence,  which  cannot  always  detect  the  relation  between 
action  and  result.  It  must  recognise  that  character  is  a  growth, 
and  that  discipline  is  the  natural  trainer  and  corrector  of  that 
growth. 

2.  Its  Aims  must  be  Crood. — It  ought  to  produce  pupils  who 
are  not  ashamed  to  confess  ignorance  by  asking  a  question,  and 
who  show  a  willingness  to  be  taught  by  any  one.  Do  the  scholars 
take  pains  with  their  work  ?  Do  they  love  and  seek  their  work  ? 
Is  the  discipline  sufficient  to  restrain  all  the  unruly  impulses  of 
the  children  ?  Is  it  maintained  by  love  or  by  fear  ?  Does  it  make 
a  right  use  of  punishments,  recognise  the  inborn  idleness  of  some 
natures,  and  seek  to  remove  it  ?  Does  it  cultivate  the  amicable 
sentiments  ?  Does  it  check  and  regulate  moral  precocity,  which 
is  always  an  expensive  luxury?  Does  it  make  a  proper  use  of  the 
discipline  of  consequences  ?  Is  it  consistent,  and  does  it  tend  to 
develop  a  self-governed  being  ?  Is  it  in  harmony  with  the  child's 
nature,  and  does  it  possess  sufficient  flexibility  and  versatility, 
which  are  necessary  from  an  analysis  both  of  children  and 
self? 

In  so  far  as  it  fails  in  any  of  these  objects,  it  fails  to  be  good  ; 
hence  it  is  not  sufficient  to  say  that  discipline  is  the  power  exer- 
cised by  the  teacher  over  the  children,  for  that  power  may  be  bad. 

II.  VTays  and  Means. — Discipline  must  be  obtained  in  one  of 
two  ways — by  personal  influence  or  by  force.  "  It  is  better  to 
gain  it  by  force  than  not  to  gain  it  at  all "  (Fitch). 


DISCIPLINE.  13 

1.  Material  Means. 

{a)  Good  physical  surroundings  are  essential.  Ill  furnished,  badly  lighted, 
badly  ventilated,  dirty,  unattractive,  or  badly  planned  buildings, 
limited  or  insufficient  playground  accommodation,  difficult  or  incon- 
venient means  of  entry  and  egress  to  school  or  classes — all  such  are 
impediments  to  good  discipline. 

{/>)  The  dress,  mann<>r,  'oici',  and  bearing  of  the  teacher  should  be  pleasing. 

(c)  A  certain  formality  and    dignity  should  be  maintained.      It  aids   the 

influence  of  the  teacher,  and  generates  a  certain  amount  of  advisable 
awe. 
{d)  There  should  be  a  due  alternation  and  remission  of  work.     Suitable 
changes  and  a  fair  amount  of  recreation  are  great  aids. 

2.  Mental  Means. 

{a)  All  duties  and  offences  should  be  expressed  in  simple,  clear,  and  pre- 
cise language.     The  rules  should  be  few  and  well  understood. 

(/;)  Offences  should  be  graduated,  and  for  this  purpose  the  teacher  must 
know  the  principles  of  punishment. 

{c)  There  should  be  efficient  organisation,  classification,  and  thorough 
supervision. 

(d)  The  reasons  for  discipline  should,   as  far  as  possible,  be  made  intelli- 

gible to  the  children.     Knowledge  breeds  confidence,  and  tends  to 
obedience. 

(e)  The  methods  of  teaching  used  should  be  carefully  studied,  so  as  to 

produce  the  maximum  gain  at  a  minimum  cost  of  temper  and  brain. 

3.  Moral  Means. 

(a)  Punishment. — A  right  use  of  punishment  is  very  important.      Never 
chide  hastily,  but  correct  with  gentleness  and  with  evidence  of  pain. 
Seek  to  encourage,  rather  than  to  degrade.     Have  as  few  restraints  as 
possible,   and  gradually  shift  the  responsibility  from  the  shoulders  of 
the  staff  to  that  of  the  scholars.      With  the  elder  scholars  there  is 
nothing  like  a  feeling  of  responsibility  for  the  production  of  a  healthy 
discipline,  although,  at  the  same  time,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
this  is  not  recommended  for  young  children.     Every  teacher  possesses 
more  or  less  tact,  and  the  quality  of  his  discipline  will  largely  depend 
upon  what  use  he  makes  of  this  important  talent. 
By  tact  is  meant  a  keen  observation  of  what  is  going  on,  of  everything  within 
the  knowledge  or  experience  of  the  teacher,  and  a  readiness  to  convert  these 
extraneous  incidents  into  immediate  allies.     Nor  does  it  finish  with  a  quick 
and  thorough  observation.     There  must  also  be  good  and  swift  discrimina- 
tion for  the  exercise  of  sound  judgments. 
{3)  Oovernment. — Avoid  over-government.     This  is  the  antithesis  of  feeble 
government,  and  is,  perhaps,  as  much  to  be  condemned.     The  teacher 
must  remember  that  authority  exists  for  the  benefit  of  the  governed — 
not  for  the  governors.     For  this  purpose  the  voluntary  dispositions  of 
the  children  should  be  trusted  as  much  as  possible.     A  good  class 
opinion  should  be  created,  as  well  as  a  pride  in  the  moral  condition  of 
the  school, 

i.  Older  Children  as  an  Aid  to  Discipline. 

(i)  By  their  own  example  they  can  aid,  for  imitation  is  the  strongest  faculty 
in  children.  Admiration  and  esteem  for  the  elder  scholars  is  generally 
manifested  by  the  younger  ones,  and  they  always  evince  great  pleasure 
at  recognition  or  notice  by  the  elder  ones. 

(2)  By  supervision.  The  qualities  mentioned  should  be  turned  to  account 
by  the  elder  scholars  to  aid  in  the  maintenance  of  discipline,  both  out 
of  and  in  school.  They  can  share  the  games  of  the  younger  ones,  or 
they  can  control  them.  They  can  act  as  monitors,  assist  in  regulating 
assembly  or  dismissal,  and  generally  hold  a  light  controlling  hand 
over  their  younger  schoolfellows. 


14  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

(3)  By  protection.  They  could  and  should  aid  to  protect  the  property  of 
the  school,  the  persons  of  the  scholars,  and  the  character  and  reputa- 
tion of  the  school. 

ORDBR. — Order  is  the  groundwork  and  essential  of  all  method. 
Just  as  order  is  said  to  be  Heaven's  first  law,  so  should  it  be  made 
the  first  law  of  life,  whether  in  school  or  out.  Without  it  efficient 
instruction  is  impossible.  The  best  economy  of  time  and  force 
demands  a  place  for  everything,  and  everything  to  be  in  its  place. 
There  is  a  time  for  everything,  hence  there  must  be  definiteness 
and  an  absence  of  procrastination.  Order  involves  the  doing  of 
the  right  thing  in  the  right  way,  time,  and  place  by  the  right 
person. 

How  to  get  it.-  The  teacher  should  demand  order,  and  then 
see  that  he  gets  it.  He  must  have  a  perfect  control  over  himself 
and  over  the  school.  He  must  be  quiet  in  voice  and  manner,  and 
his  voice  must  be  heard  as  rarely  as  possible  for  the  efficient  dis- 
charge of  his  duties.  He  must  be  orderly  in  his  habits,  person, 
and  school  arrangements.  He  must  be  quick  of  eye  and  ear,  and 
possess  tact,  if  he  is  to  be  something  better  than  a  drill  sergeant. 
He  must  feel  and  show  sympathy  with  the  scholars  in  their  work 
and  play.  He  must  have  just  and  intelligible  rules,  and  these 
must  be  uniformly  enforced.  He  must  avoid  over-government,  as 
it  is  irritating  and  wasteful. 

There  must  be  regularity  in  the  school  movements,  and  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  uniformity.  Industry  must  be  enforced,  and  quiet- 
ness must  be  ensured — not  too  much  quietness,  as  it  is  unnatural  to 
child  life,  and  bespeaks  restraint  rather  than  order.  The  busy  hum 
of  an  industrious  school  is  no  evidence  of  a  lack  of  order.  Orderly 
methods  of  work  should  be  demanded  and  taught,  with  neat  and 
well-arranged  slate  and  paper  work.  The  children  should  always 
be  arranged  in  an  orderly  manner.  The  appointment  of  monitors, 
curators,  etc.,  will  conduce  to  order,  and  a  good  time-table  will 
assist.  Finally,  the  teacher  should  see  that  there  is  good  organi- 
sation, classification,  and  careful  supervision,  with  good  and  com- 
fortable physical  surroundings,  i.e.,  a  well-warmed,  well-lighted, 
well-ventilated,  and  well-furnished  school. 

PARENTAI.  CO-OPERATION. 

A  great  deal  of  importance  should  be  attached  to  this,  and  it 
will  pay  the  teacher  to  get  known  among  the  parents  of  his  pupils. 
Circumstances  may  vary,  and  each  teacher  may  probably  be  the 
best  judge  as  to  the  best  means  of  doing  this  in  his  own  particular 


DISCIPLINE.  15 

case.     Nevertheless,  a  few  suggestions  are  here  offered   for  any 
cases  where  they  may  be  applicable,  and  are  wanted. 

1.  Correspondence. — A  great  deal  may  be  done  by  a  judicious 
letter  now  and  then  for  special  cases;  but,  as  a  general  method,  it 
would  be  too  expensive  in  time.  It  cannot,  from  staff  limitations, 
be  used  as  a  sole  means  ;  yet  it  is  a  good  ally  to  other  means. 

2.  Visits. — These  are  very  productive  so  far  as  they  go, 
whether  paid  or  received  ;  but  necessarily  they  cannot  go  very 
far. 

3.  School  Entertainments. — These  may  take  the  form  of 
concerts,  entertainments,  or  prize  distributions,  and  they  are  the 
best  means  at  the  teacher's  disposal  for  securing  the  object  de- 
sired. The  parents  generally  like  to  attend  such  meetings,  and  in 
this  way  they  get  to  know  the  teacher,  and  to  be  known,  in  a 
pleasant  manner;  both  parents  and  children  see  the  social  side  of 
the  teacher's  character.  Experience  recommends  this  method. 
It  is  a  good  investment  for  the  teacher;  for  discipline  becomes 
easier,  attendance  better,  and  parental  support  more  general. 

4.  Iiocal  Residence. — To  reside  among  or  near  the  parents  is 
to  place  one's-self  in  a  favourable  position  to  become  known  and 
appreciated.  Unfortunately,  in  many  of  the  large  towns,  it  is 
scarcely  possible  for  teachers  to  reside  in  the  locality  of  their 
schools. 

5.  Ijocal  Affairs. — The  teacher  can  interest  himself  in  local 
affairs.  This  will  bring  him  under  the  notice  of  the  parents  ;  he 
will  be  better  known,  and  light  goes  with  knowledge.  He  will  be 
better  treated,  better  respected,  better  appreciated  as  ignorance 
of  him,  and  perhaps  prejudice  in  some  cases,  slowly  melt  away 
before  a  growing  knowledge  of  his  character.  The  multifarious 
associations,  classes,  societies,  etc.,  in  most  parishes,  will  give 
him  ample  opportunity.  The  Vestries,  Councils,  and  Corporations 
will  give  him  an  opportunity  sometimes  of  serving  his  fellow- 
townsmen  in  a  voluntary  capacity,  and  of  forming  a  powerful 
circle  of  friends  and  supporters. 

6.  liOcal  Press.— Where  possible,  he  should  enlist  the  aid  of 
the  local  press,  which  is  sure  to  be  read  by  many  of  the  parents. 
Report  the  successes  of  the  school ;  its  meetings,  social  and  other- 
wise ;  the  performances  of  distinguished  scholars.  The  interest 
of  the  scholars  and  parents  will  be  aroused,  their  sympathies  en- 
listed, and  their  co-operation  stimulated. 


i6  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

AUXIIiIARV  MEANS  OF  TRAINING. 

Besides  the  usual  course  of  school  work,  an  excellent  school 
seeks  by  other  means  to  be  of  service  to  the  children  who  attend 
it.  Such  means  would  embrace  many  expedients,  among  which 
the  following  would  be  included  : — 

1.  Recreation. — The  establishment  of  Athletic  Clubs,  such 
as  football,  cricket,  and  swimming,  is  now  very  general.  A 
Ramblers'  Club  affords  pleasure  and  profit  if  the  teacher  knows 
some  Natural  History.  In  each  case  the  teacher  should  support 
the  club  by  his  presence.  The  manly  and  useful  qualities,  so  well 
inculcated  by  our  English  games,  when  properly  played,  are 
among  the  most  valuable  results  of  our  educative  system.  Con- 
certs have  already  been  referred  to.  The  establishment  of  a 
School  Library  would  supply  another  healthy  and  educative 
source  of  recreation,  and  would  help  to  form  that  love  for  sound 
literature  which  is  such  a  blessing  in  after  life. 

2.  Assistance. — Thrift  might  be  encouraged  by  the  adoption 
of  Penny  Banks.  The  teacher  might  also  seek  to  cultivate  influ- 
ence with  neighbouring  employers,  so  as  to  help  to  place  some  of 
the  boys  when  leaving  school.  Other  means  of  assisting  will 
probably  present  themselves.  Locality  may  afford  or  deny  advan- 
tages of  this  sort,  but  where  the  teacher  shows  practically  that  he 
is  concerned  about  the  future  welfare  of  his  scholars,  his  influence 
will  be  none  the  less,  and  his  success  will  be  all  the  greater.  In 
the  poorest  districts,  the  practical  interest  shown  by  the  teachers 
in  the  penny,  half-penny,  and  free  dinners,  and  their  appeals  for 
cast-off  clothing,  is  splendid  evidence  of  the  missionary  spirit 
which  many  of  them  bring  to  bear  upon  their  work. 

PUNISHMENT. 

I.  Its  Limits. — The  subject  of  punishments  is  the  most  difficult 
and  the  most  vexed  in  school  management.  There  is  a  great  and 
striking  diversity  of  opinion  on  the  subject.  The  teacher  must 
remember  that  all  punishment  is  suffering,  and,  as  such,  is  an  evil. 
Hence  it  should  only  be  inflicted  when  necessary;  and  since  it  is 
intended  to  supply  a  counteracting  force,  weak  punishments  may 
be  the  worst  of  punishments.  A  pupil  should  never  be  punished 
at  the  moment  of  offence  ;  never  when  he  is  not  expecting  it ;  and 
for  serious  cases  always  in  private.  The  teacher  should  always 
look  for  the  motive,  as  it  is  that  which  has  to  be  checked ;  and 
only  punish  when  that  motive  is  a  bad  one.     To  punish  judiciously 


DISCIPLINE.  17 

and  profitably  much  experience  is  required.  Young  teachers  have 
not  this  experience,  hence  if  they  punish  at  all  they  should  begin 
with  light  punishments.  Unjust  punishments  are  injurious  mor- 
ally, mentally,  and  physically.  They  breed  bad  feeling  between 
teacher  and  class  ;  they  check  the  activities  of  the  child,  and  often 
place  the  teacher  in  a  dangerous  and  uncomfortable  position. 
Hence  seek  to  limit  them  as  much  as  possible. 

II.  Cases  for  no  Punishment.  -These,  as  laid  down  by 
Bentham,  are  : — 

1.  Where  it  is  Groundless. — These  would  include  such  cases  as  these  : — 
{a)  Where  there  has  been  no  real  mischief,  the  other  party  consenting. 
\b)  Where  the  mischief  is  overweighted  by  a  greater  benefit, 

2.  Where  it  is  Inefficacious. — Such  cases  exist  when  : — 
{a)  The  penalty  has  not  come  under  the  child's  notice. 

\b)  Or,  when  he  is  unaware  of  the  consequences  of  his  act. 
[c]  Or.  when  he  is  not  a  free  agent. 

3.  Where  it  is  Unprofitable  — This  includes  cases  where  the  evil  of  the 
punishment  exceeds  the  evil  of  the  offence  ;  or  when  it  is  likely  to  be  useless 
through  a  weak  will.  The  teacher  must  know  what  these  evils  are  to  measure 
them.     Such  evils  of  punishment  would  include  :— 

(a)  Coercion  or  restraint, 

\b)  The  uneasiness  of  apprehension. 

[c)  The  actual  suffering. 

[d)  The  suffering  caused  to  sympatliisers  with  the  sufferers. 

i.  Where  it  is  Needless. — It  is  needless  when  the  end  can  be  obtained  in 
some  other  way  ;  as  by  instruction,  persuasion,  etc.  Such  cases  would  include 
obstreperousness  in  boys,  some  forms  of  crying,  and  cases  in  which  the  disci- 
pline of  consequences  avails, 

III.  The  Amount  of  Punishment. — The  amount  should  be  a 
varying  quantity,  regulated  by  the  following  factors  : — 

1.  Profit. — By  this  is  meant  that  the  punishment  should  be  such  as  to  clearly 
outweigh  the  profit  of  the  offence. 

2.  Mischief. — The  greater  the  mischief  of  the  offence,  the  greater  the  ex- 
pense it  is  worth  while  to  be  at  in  the  way  of  punishment. 

3.  Grades. — If  one  fault  is  greater  than  another,  the  punishment  for  the 
greater  should  be  such  as  to  make  the  less  preferred  ;  e.g. ,  truancy  and  lying 
should  be  punished  more  severely  than  simple  truancy.  But  the  punishment 
must  only  be  great  enough  for  the  purpose. 

4.  Motives.— The  punishment  should  be  so  adjusted  that  for  every  part  of 
the  resulting  mischief  a  motive  may  be  supplied  to  restrain  from  committing 
the  same  fault  again. 

5.  Individualities.— The  circumstances  affecting  the  sensibility  of  the 
offender  should  be  taken  into  account,  such  as  age,  constitution,  position  in 
school,  etc.,  so  that  the  same  punishment  may  not  operate  unequally. 

6.  Certainty. — The  less  certain  the  punishment,  the  greater  it  should  be. 

7.  Proximity. — The  longer  a  punishment  is  delayed,  the  greater  it  should 
become.     Penalties  that  are  uncertain  or  remote  fail  to  influence  the  mind. 

8.  Habit.— When  the  fault  indicates  a  habit,  like  truancy,  laziness,  or  un- 
punctuality,  the  punishment  must  be  increased  so  as  to  outweigh  the  profit  of 
other  attendant  offences  that  the  offender  may  commit  with  impunity.  This  is 
severe,  biU  necessary. 

9.  Absolutism. — A  punishment  may  be  well  suited  in  quality,  but  it  only 
exists  in  one  absolute  quantity.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  advisable  to  employ 
it,  although  a  little  beyond  the  measure  of  the  offence  ;  e.g.,  expulsion,  dismissal 

2 


i8  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

from  ofifice,  etc.     And  this  may  be  the  case  more  particularly  when  the  punish- 
ment constitutes  a  moral  lesson. 

10.  Limitations. — The  quantity  of  punishment  administered  must  always 
be  regulated  by  the  cases  for  no  punishment.  Again,  if  the  punishment  is 
more  likely  to  do  harm  than  good,  it  should  be  omitted. 

IV.  Selection  of  Punishment. — Here  again  Bentham  lays 
down  certain  conditions  which  must  be  considered  : — 

1.  Variability. — A  punishment  should  have  degrees  of  intensity  and  dura- 
tion ;  e.^.,  fine^s,  corporal  punishment,  detention,  censure. 

2.  Equability. — The  punishment  should  have  equal  application  under  all 
circiimstances.     It  should  be  adequate,  just  enough  only.     This  is  not  easy. 

3.  Commensurability. — Punishments  should  be  so  adapted  to  offences  that 
the  offender  may  clearly  conceive  the  inequality  of  the  suffering  attached  to 
offences  of  different  degrees  of  guilt. 

4.  Exemplarity. — The  punishment  should  furnish  an  example,  and  to  do 
this  it  should  be  duly  impressive. 

8.  Frugality. — By  this  is  meant  that  a  profitable  turn  should  be  given  to 
the  punishment. 

6.  Reformation. — -The  punishment  should  tend  to  reform  by  weakening  the 
seductive  and  by  strengthening  the  preserving  motives  ;  as  in  giving  habits  of 
labour  to  the  idle. 

7.  Efficacious. — It  should  be  efficacious  in  disablement,  as  in  deposition 
from  office. 

8.  Compensation. — It  should  be  made  to  grant  compensation,  as  in  making 
children  pay  for  damage  to  property,  and  in  making  up  for  neglected  lessons. 

9.  Popularity. — It  must  be  popular  to  gain  school  sympathy,  otherwise  the 
punishment  is  weak. 

10.  Description. — It  must  be  simple  of  description,  and  within  easy  grasp 
of  the  child's  intelligence. 

11.  Remissibility. — As  in  the  case  of  a  mistake. 

V.  Kinds  of  Punishment. 

1.  Blame. — All  forms  of  censure  may  be  used,  because  they  are  a  good 
and  ready  method.  But  the  teacher  should  be  sparing  of  it.  Righteous  and 
controlled  indignation  is  a  powerful  weapon,  which  should  be  reserved  for 
special  occasions. 

2.  Shame.— Appeals  should  be  made  to  the  sense  of  shame.  It  is  powerful 
with  many,  but  not  all.  It  depends  for  its  value  on  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
pupil,  and  class  opinion.  It  is  not  suited  to  great  offences,  and  so  generally  is 
useful  only  for  first  offenders.     Iteration  weakens  it. 

3.  Detention. — The  stopping  of  play  and  loss  of  liberty  are  very  irritating 
to  children.  Hence  detention  should  be  used  for  great  and  habit  offences  like 
riotous  behaviour  and  unpunctuality.     Bain  thinks  it  a  bad  form  of  punishment. 

4.  Pleasure.— The  deprivation  of  some  object  of  pleasure  is  a  good  form  of 
punishment  where  applicable.  There  is  another  application  of  this  punishment 
which  is  recommended  by  Locke.  Take  the  offence  itself  and  dose  the  offender 
until  he  is  salted  with  it. 

5.  Impositions. — Here  the  pain  lies  in  the  weariness  produced.  There  is 
also  the  irksomeness  of  confinement.  They  might  be  used  for  neglect  of  lessons, 
for  unpunctuality,  and  for  disobedience.  But  there  is  a  strong  division  of 
opinion  about  their  value.  It  is  asserted,  with  some  truth,  that  they  create  a 
distaste  for  school  work,  and  so  while  checking  one  evil  they  produce  another. 
By  some  they  are  even  considered  barbarous. 

6.  Marks'. — The  giving  of  bad  marks  may  be  useful,  especially  if  it  is  pos- 
sible to  erase  them  by  subsequent  good  conduct. 

7.  Corporal  Punishment. — See  Section  VII. 

8.  Expulsion.— This  should  be  a  last  resource.  Its  failing  is  that  it  is  not 
always  available  in  an  elementary  school. 


DISCIPLINE.  19 

VI.  Objectionable  Forms  of  Punishment. — Such  punish- 
ments as  a  box  on  the  ear,  blows  on  the  head  or  face,  pulling  the 
hair,  pinching  the  ears,  rapping  knuckles,  standing  on  one  leg, 
crucifixion  (standing  with  extended  arms),  impositions  (according 
to  some  people),  should  all  be  strictly  avoided.  The  dark  room  and 
the  cupboard  are  barbarous  and  dangerous  punishments.  The  fool's 
cap,  the  label,  or  the  sandwich  boards  degrade  the  pupil  in  the 
estimation  of  his  fellows,  and  often  harden  the  culprit  himself. 

VTI.  Corporal  Punishment.— This  is  the  most  vexing  form  of 
this  most  vexed  question  of  school  management.  Opinions  on  it 
are  so  conflicting,  that  any  pronounced  opinion  is  sure  to  offend 
some  people.  But  our  best  educational  authorities  consider  there 
are  times  when  it  is  necessary,  and  when  it  would  be  a  mistake 
not  to  use  it. 

Objections  to  Corporal  Punishment.— John  Locke  gives  the 
following  objections  to  its  use  : — 

(i)  There  is  in  us  a  natural  propensity  to  indulge  in  corporeal  and  present 
pleasure.  This  wants  rooting  out.  But  corporal  punishment  strengthens 
the  propensity  by  appealing  to  it.  A  child  who  abstains  from  any  act 
through  fear  of  corporal  punishment  only  prefers  a  greater  corporeal 
pleasure,  or  avoids  a  greater  corporeal  pain. 

(2)  By  association,  it  breeds  aversion  to  that  for  which  it  is  the  teacher's 

business  to  create  a  liking. 

(3)  It  is  a  slavish  discipline,  and  makes  a  slavish  temper. 

(4)  It  often— in  severe  cases— brings  a  worse  and  more  dangerous  disease, 

by  b7-eaking  the  mind.     Instead  of  a  disorderly  boy  you  get  a  low- 
spirited,  moping  boy. 

Vm.  Voung  Teachers  and  Corporal  Punishment. — Young 

teachers  should  be  restricted  from  the  use  of  corporal  punishment, 

both  for  their  own  sake,  and  for  the  sake  of  their  scholars. 


For  the  Scholar's  Sake.  For  the  Teacher's  Sake. 


1.  The  infliction  of  corporal  punishment  i.  The  work  is  so  unpleasant  that  young 
is  the  most  difficult  and  the  most  unpleasant  teachers  should  rather  avoid  than  seek  it. 
part  of  a  teacher's  work  ;  and,  therefore,  for  2.  Generally,  it  is  against  the  opinion  of 
the  sake  of  the  scholars,  it  ought  to  be  in-  School  Boards,  the  public,  the  parents,  the 
flicted  only  by  those  presumably  most  fit  to  press,  and  the  magistrates  ;  and  an  antago- 
do  this  delicate  work.  nism  to  so  many  authorities,  and  its  conse- 

2.  Scholars  are  more  ready  to  admit  its    quent  risks,  is  too  big  a  price  to  pay  for  the 
justice  from  an  older  or  principal  teacher.       authority  in  question. 

3.  There  is  apt  to  be  in  young  teachers :  3.  It  breeds  bad  feeling  between  pupils 
(fl)  More  zeal  than  discretion  ;  and  teachers,  and  so  discounts  the  efficiency 
(6)  More  feeling  than  judgment ;               of  the  work. 

{c)  More  energy  than  sympathy ;  [      4.  It  often  breeds  insubordination  when 

and,  as  a  result,  the  children  may  be  pun-  I  inflicted  by  a  young  teacher, 
ished  unjustly.  j      5.  Punishment,  for  the  most  part,  is  nega- 

4.  It  tends  to  harden  and  demoralise,  and  '  tive  in  its  effects.     It  weakens  vital  force, 
not  to  elevate.  !  and  so  discounts  work.      It  deters  rather 

5.  It  checks  the  will  without  disciplining    than  excites  to  activity, 
it,  and  so  makes   the   scholar  less   fit  for  \ 

work. 


20  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

REVTARDS. 

1.  Principles  underlying- their  Use. — i.  A  child  should  do  its 
lessons  and  behave  itself  properly  from  a  sense  of  duty ;  but,  un- 
fortunately, the  sense  of  duty  is  weak  in  a  child,  and  has  to  be 
cultivated.  For  the  adequate  accomplishment  of  our  duty  a  moral 
impulse  is  at  least  occasionally  necessary.  But  a  moral  impulse 
involves  a  moral  sense,  and  here  again  we  find  children  lacking. 
The  cultivation  of  a  proper  moral  sense  is  the  great  aim  of  school 
education  on  its  moral  side,  and  this  is  the  work  of  years.  Then, 
as  the  motives  are  weak,  some  inducements  to  right  conduct  must 
be  held  out  to  children  :  hence  the  necessity  for  rewards.  The 
natural  appetite  of  a  healthy  child  is  for  play,  and  as  all  work 
cannot  be  made  play,  then  rewards  become  necessary  as  an  in- 
ducement. 

2.  But  the  proper  bestowal  of  rewards  involves  the  exercise  of 
wisdom  and  justice.  When  to  bestow  them,  why  they  are 
bestowed,  and  the  amount  to  be  bestowed,  are  three  problems 
difficult  to  solve  in  some  cases.  Their  moral  effect  must  not  be 
wasted  or  lost.  The  ground  on  which  they  are  given  is  all-impor- 
tant. Effort  and  industry  should  be  encouraged  rather  than  intel- 
lectual ability  ;  moral  work,  rather  than  mental  merit. 

3.  Rewards  should  not  be  too  freely  bestowed  in  the  early 
stages  of  child  life,  for  that  is  the  period  for  developing  the  social 
sentiments,  and  emulation  or  rivalry  is  an  anti-social  emotion. 

II.  Rev^ards  as  Inducements  to  Work. — i. — They  are  an 
incentive  to  work,  because  they  appeal  to  the  love  of  gain,  the  love 
of  approbation,  the  love  of  power,  and  kindred  emotions.  The  risk 
attached  to  them  is  that  they  are  apt  to  be  looked  upon  as  an  end 
rather  than  as  means. 

2.  They  are  a  means  of  interesting  the  parents  in  the  progress 
of  their  children. 

3.  They  incite  to  obedience,  and  so  strengthen  the  formation  of 
good  habits. 

4.  They  often  raise  the  successful  pupils  in  their  own  and  the 
estimation  of  the  other  pupils.  They  thus  breed  respect,  which 
may  be  valued  more  than  the  reward  itself. 

5.  They  set  up  a  pleasant  and  profitable  association  between 
industry  and  the  best  form  of  rewards. 

6.  They  make  a  powerful  appeal  to  emulation  ;  and  the  desire  of 
surpassing  others,  of  gaining  distinction,  of  acquiring  fame,  is  the 
most  powerful  known  stimulant  to  intellectual  work. 


DISCIPLINE.  21 

7.  Rewards  bestow  pleasure,  and  pleasure  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  motives. 

8.  Rewards  sltg  positive  in  their  effects;  punishments  are  nega- 
tive :  hence  they  are  a  better  weapon  than  punishments. 

III.  School  Rewards. 

1.  Place  Taking. — This  appeals  powerfully  to  emulation. 

2.  Decorations. — These  are  of  a  simple  character. 

3.  School  Privileges. — These  include  such  things  as  the  right  to  occupy 
certain  places,  to  fill  certain  offices  like  that  of  moniiors,  curators,  librarians 
of  the  school  library,  the  marking  of  certain  forms  of  school  work,  etc. 

4.  Prizes. — These  can  take  the  form  of  books,  certificates,  inedals,  and  scliolar- 
sfiips.  Their  effect  varies.  They  often  stimulate  rivalry,  which  is  an  anti-social 
feeling  ;  or  they  may  call  forth  the  best  of  the  social  emotions — love  for  parents, 
respect  or  love  for  the  teacher,  and  the  consequent  desire  to  give  the  loved  or 
respected  ones  pleasure  by  the  gaining  of  a  prize.  They  often  have  a  wider 
effect.  There  is  the  bitter  feeling  of  disappointment  in  the  less  successful 
scholars,  which  may  harden  into  indifference  and  a  subsequent  lack  of  effort, 
or  there  is  the  arousing  of  jealousies,  envy,  and  a  sense  of  injustice.  A  failure, 
rightly  utilised,  should  become  a  further  stimulus  to  success. 

8.  Esteem,  Praise. — These  are  very  powerful  incentives  to  the  mind,  but 
they  must  be  used  judiciously  to  be  effective.  A  pleasant  association  grows  up 
between  right  conduct  and  praise  ;  and  later,  the  right  conduct  becomes  a 
habit,  and  sufficiently  strong  to  exist  independently  of  the  association. 

GOOD  MANNERS. 

Good  manners  are  a  matter  of  breeding  or  habit,  hence  any 
efforts  in  the  direction  of  good  manners  must  go  through  habit. 
If  home  influences  are  antagonistic,  the  task  is  rendered  more 
difficult  ;  but  this  difficulty  ought  to  stimulate  to  greater  effort. 

1.  Imitation. — The  imitative  faculty  is  strong  in  children,  hence  the  teacher 
should  always  be  well  mannered  before  his  pupils.  He  should  see  that  they 
are  well  mannered  to  him  and  to  each  other,  and  both  should  be  well  mannered 
to  visitors  and  officials,  and  in  their  private  life.  The  better  mannered  boys 
might  be  held  up  as  an  example  to  the  rest.  This  could  be  done  in  many  ways 
without  obtruding  such  pupils  directly  on  the  notice  of  their  fellows. 

2.  Their  Importance. — The  teacher  should  make  his  class  thoroughly 
understand  the  importance  he  attaches  to  good  manners.  There  is  a  tendency 
too  often  to  think  too  much  of  intellectual  excellence,  and  to  take  excellence  in 
bearing  as  a  matter  of  course.  If  the  class  once  understands  that  the  teacher 
attaches  as  much  importance  to  good  manners  as  to  good  scholarship,  the  im- 
provement will  be  rapid  and  wide. 

3.  Rewards. — These  should  be  given  for  conduct  as  well  as  for  ability. 
Good  manners  form  a  large  element  in  conduct,  and  their  cultivation  will  thus 
be  encouraged.  Rewards  should  not  only  go  to  the  clever.  Remember  that 
education  is  moral  as  well  as  mental. 

4.  Good  Company. -This  is  another  opportunity  for  imitation.  Take  the 
children  into  good  company  whenever  possible.  Let  them  mingle  with  and 
see  the  manners  of  better  bred  people  than  themselves. 

5.  Self  Respect. — Inculcate  a  feeling  of  proper  self-respect.  Do  not  let 
there  be  too  much  humility,  or  hypocrisy  or  bashfulness  will  be  the  result,  and 
both  ate  ill-bred.  But  encourage  such  a  feeling  as  will  prevent  any  slight  or 
disrespect  in  their  manner  to  any  one.  A  person  who  respects  himself  usually 
shows  some  respect  to  other  people. 

6.  Cultivate  their  Dispositions. — Quickly  and  cpntinuously  cultivate  their 
flispositions,  seeking  to  produce  such  a  disposition  as  wjll  make  them  very 


22  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

reluctant  to  offend  any  one  ;  and  then  aid  them  to  show  that  disposition  in  the 
most  agreeable  way  possible.  In  this  way  they  will  gradually  become  quiet 
and  refined  in  their  general  bearing.  Especially  will  a  well-bred  person  seek 
to  avoid  making  any  one  uneasy  in  conversation. 

7.  Good  Literature. —  I^lace  good  literature  in  their  way.  Eet  them  read  of 
cultured  and  refined  people  ;  imbibe  cultured  and  refined  thoughts ;  and  the 
mellowing  influence  of  such  agencies,  though  probably  slow  in  operation,  will 
certainly  bear  fruit  by  improving  their  manners. 

ANGER. 

I.  Causes. — Anger  may  be  aroused  by  any  number  of  specific 
causes,  such  as  an  injury,  real  or  supposed  ;  unfair  or  capricious 
treatment,  unnatural  restraints  of  discipline,  physical  pain,  spite, 
envy,  or  jealousy.  But  all  these  specific  causes  range  themselves 
easily  under  one  generic  head — the  sense  of  injury. 

II.  Treatment.— ^  Its  treatment  is  difficult.  The  angry  child 
is  both  physically  and  mentally  disturbed.  If  the  anger  is  exces- 
sive, the  action  of  the  heart  is  impeded,  and  the  face  turns  pale. 
The  digestive  and  other  functions  naturally  suffer  from  the  with- 
drawal of  blood  and  nervous  power.  Or  the  excessive  activity  of 
the  system  engendered  by  anger  may  cause  the  face  to  redden, 
the  veins  to  distend,  and  the  action  of  the  heart  to  quicken.  This 
rousing  of  activity  is  characteristic  of  rage,  and  the  child  is  in  a 
very  excitable  condition  altogether. 

The  child  is  equally  disturbed  mentally.  There  is  a  shock  of 
pain  which  discomposes  the  system  ;  a  deep  rankling  pain,  which 
wants  to  retaliate  ;  a  state  of  feeling,  which  turns  the  pain  to  joy 
if  the  retaliation  is  successfully  effected. 

A  little  knowledge  of  this  sort  shows  the  teacher  the  difficulty 
of  his  task.  The  child  is  in  no  fit  state  for  argument  or  punish- 
ment. The  first  effort  must  be  to  soothe  the  child,  and  to  restore 
him  to  something  like  a  normal  physical  and  mental  condition. 
This  will  depend  largely  upon  the  temperament  of  the  child,  and 
the  nature  of  the  provocation.  An  unintended  injury  is  easily 
satisfied,  but  injury  done  designedly  is  not  so  easily  removed. 

(i)  Bearing  these  facts  in  mind  a^  a  subsequent  period,  when  anger  has 
decreased  or   disappeared,   the  teacher  might    make   some  effort   to 
strengthen  the  child  against  any  similar  outbreak.     If  any  immediate 
action  is  taken  at  all,  it  should  take  one  of  two  forms  : — 
(i)  The  voluntary  self-humiliation  of  the  wrongdoer. 

(2)  A  compulsory  humiliation  inflicted  upon  the  wrongdoer.     Bain  assures  us 
that  both  of  these  are  found  to  answer  their  end. 

(2)  Later  on  the  teacher  might  point  out  the  dreadful  effects  of  anger.     He 

might  show  how  it  exhausts  the  energy ;  gives  pain  and  annoyance  to 
others ;  makes  enemies ;  and  brings  dislike  and  distrust.  Angry 
people  are  wisely  shunned. 

(3)  He  should  appeal  to  the  class  to  heai-  and  forbear ;  to  avoid  anything' 

likely  to  provoke  to  anger. 


DISCIPLINE. 


23 


(4)  He  should  seek  to  cultivate  the  reflective  powers  of  the  child,  and  this 

will  give  him, a  healthier  view  of  the  irritating  causes, 

(5)  Where  possible  he  should  trust  to  the  discipline  of  consequences,  for 

anger  often  brings  its  own  punishment. 

(6)  Where  it  leads  to  acts  of  deliberate  cruelty  it  must  be  checked,  even  at 

the  expense  of  considerable  severity. 

(7)  He  should  appeal  to  the  child s  toill,  and  make  him  understand  that  he 

should  be  the  master,  not  the  slave  of  his  passions.  He  might  also 
gently  remind  him  that  public  opinion  considers  anger  to  be  short 
madness. 

(8)  Perhaps  the  best  method  of  all  will  be  to  cultivate  the  social  feelings  ; 

to  appeal  to  the  higher  side  of  the  child's  nature. 

OBSTINACir. 

This  is  a  fearful  fault  of  temper  in  children,  and  one  especially 
hard  to  deal  with.  Its  treatment  should  depend  upon  its  cause, 
and  will  often  differ.  Its  detection  is  not  always  easy,  for  there 
may  be  states  of  mind  which  may  be  mistaken  for  it.  We  will 
first  of  all  deal  with  those. 

I.  Mistaken  Obstinacy. 

1.  Stupidity. — This  is  often  mistaken  for  obstinacy  by  inexperienced  or 
careless  teachers.  The  natural  obtuseness  which  keeps  a  child  dumb  when 
questioned,  the  lack  of  intellect  which  handicaps  him  in  the  right  interpretation 
of  work  and  rule,  and  often  the  consciousness  of  his  own  stupidity,  are  factors 
giving  a  product  which  wears  the  garb  of  obstinacy. 

2.  Physical  Weakness. — This  may  not  allow  a  child  the  necessary  strength 
or  energy  for  the  proper  performance  of  school  duties.  There  is  a  shrinking 
from  the  censure  expected  or  received  ;  a  sort  of  passive  suffering,  lacking  the 
necessary  strength-fed  courage.  But  it  is  not  obstinacy.  It  is  not  a  fault  of 
temper,  but  of  constitution. 

3.  Fear. — Here  the  pupil  will  be  in  an  extreme  state  of  misery  and  depres- 
sion. All  the  activities  are  prostrated,  and  as  a  result  the  child  will  be  afflicted 
with  exaggerated  ideas  in  all  matters  associated  with  this  emotion.  Remember 
the  pain  of  fear  is  double,  the  present  pain  being  augmented  by  a  prospect  of 
future  pain,  increased  by  uncertainty.  It  is  a  most  destructive  feeling.  It 
wastes  the  energy  of  the  child  and  scatters  his  thoughts,  and  consequently  it  is 
a  great  hindrance  to  progress.  Generally  it  paralyses  effort,  and  this  is  mis- 
taken for  obstinacy. 

4.  Treatment. — In  all  these  cases  there  is  no  voluntary  resistance,  but  con- 
stitutional defects,  and  punishment  is  unwise  and  unjust.  The  child  does  not 
require  correction,  but  assistance  ;  not  severity,  but  sympathetic  patience. 

H.  Real  Obstinacy.— This  may  originate  in  several  ways. 

1.  The  Teacher.— Harshness  in  manner  and  treatment ;  a  querulous  nature 
with  its  chronic  fault-finding;  the  sneer,  sarcasm,  or  other  mode  of  irritating 
language  ;  demanding  too  much  of  the  pupil,  and  meeting  failure  with  punish- 
ment— all  these  are  provocative  of  real  obstinacy. 

2.  Fitful  Obstinacy. —  Here  the  obstinacy  is  a  fluctuating  and  uncertain 
quantity.  Its  cause  may  be  any  of  those  specified,  but  its  uncertainty  is  its 
chief  characteristic.     Wounded  vanity  is  often  the  guilty  agent. 

3.  Vicious  Obstinacy. — This  is  a  bad  fault  of  temper,  and  is  generally 
indicative  of  a  low  moral  tone,  or  of  a  strong  development  of  the  anti-social 
emotions.  The  pupil  deliberately  defies  authority,  makes  himself  a  nuisance, 
and  often  becomes  a  force  by  the  mere  nature  of  his  objectionableness. 

4.  Treatment. 

[a)  Here  the  fault  lies  with  the  teacher,  and  the  remedy  also.     Let  him 
improve  himself,  and  the  evil  will  disappear. 


24  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

(i)  In  the  second  case  an  effort  must  be  made  to  turn  the  sympathy  of  the 
class  against  the  boy.  This  being  done,  the  boy  is  attacked  in  his 
most  vulnerable  point.  In  extreme  cases,  separation  from  his  school- 
fellows or  expulsion  may  be  used. 

{c)  There  is  some  division  of  opinion  among  our  best  authorities  as  to  the 
proper  treatment  in  the  third  case,  but  there  are  certain  recommenda- 
tions common  to  all. 
(i)  Do  not  let  the  boy  think  you  mistrust  him. 

(2)  The  teacher  must  be  firm,  unruffled,  and  reasonable.     No  personal  motive 

must  be  present. 

(3)  Avoid  a  contest  with  the  boy  if  possible ;  but  if  you  enter  upon  it  you  must 

win. 

(4)  Enlist  the  sympathies  of  his  fellows  against  him. 

(5)  Most  authorities  consider  this  a  fit  case  for  corporal  punishment,  but  only 

use  it  in  extreme  cases.     Separation  and  reflection  may  render  it  unneces- 
sary. 

(6)  Victory  must  be  followed  by  gravity  and  kindness. 

(7)  Incorrigible  cases  must  be  expelled. 

CRYING.— According  to  Locke,  there  are  two  kinds  of 
crying: — 

1.  Stubborn  and  Domineering. — This  kind  of  crying  is  a  striving  for  mas- 
tery. Children  want  their  own  way,  and  as  they  have  not  the  power  to  obtain 
their  desire,  they  will  by  their  clamour  and  sobbing  maintain  their  right  to  cry. 
If  you  permit  this  kind  of  crying,  you  merely  encourage  the  child's  unreason- 
able desires. 

Try  persuasion  at  first,  or  divert  their  attention,  or  give  them  a  little  good- 
humoured  banter.  But  the  circumstances  of  the  case  and  the  child's  temper 
must  be  considered.  If  these  fail,  use  severity  ;  for  where  a  look  or  command 
will  not  do  it,  corporal  punishment  must,  for  it  is  nothing  but  obstinacy.  The 
will  must  be  bent,  for  there  the  fault  lies.  It  may  involve  a  contest,  and, 
unless  the  crying  is  stopped,  or  its  nature  changed,  then  the  whipping  has  been 
useless.     Hence  each  case  must  be  guided  by  its  own  circumstances. 

2.  Sorrow  or  Pain. — This  kind  of  crying  can  be  easily  distinguished  from 
the  former.  Crying  is  the  first  and  natural  way  for  children  to  declare  their 
sufferings  or  wants  ;  and  this  needs  to  be  remembered,  especially  in  infant 
departments.  But  where  it  is  passing  into  a  habit  it  should  be  stopped. 
Gentle  means  will  suffice.  Children  should  be  taught  to  bear  physical  pain 
or  disappointment  without  crying.  When  they  suffer  little  knocks  and  bruises 
through  heedlessness,  it  is  not  pity  they  want  but  caution.  Locke  even  sug- 
gests that  we  should  bid  them  do  it  again.  His  great  idea  is  to  harden  children. 
He  says  they  should  have  no  tenderness  but  what  rises  from  an  ingenuous 
shame  and  a  quick  sense  of  reputation. 

CRUELTY. 

1.  Natural  Tendency. — There  is  a  natural  tendency  in  some  children  to 
cruelty.  The  sympathies  and  affections  of  children  are  often  but  little  de- 
veloped in  character,  and  where  the  contrary  passions  are  unusually  strong, 
pure  malevolence  bestows  intense  pleasure.  Cruelty  may  arise  from  thought- 
lessness or  ignorance,  as  when  a  boy  tortures  a  fly ;  but  every  teacher  of  any 
experience  knows  that  there  are  natures  prone  to  voluntary  cruelty.  The 
character  is  often  illustrated  in  literature — the  Quilp  of  Dickens  being  a  well- 
known  instance.  The  anti-social  feelings  are  strong  in  children,  and  cruelty  is 
a  development  arising  from  them.  A  child  is  fond  of  domineering.  The 
checking  of  this  arouses  antagonism.  He  resents  injuries,  real  or  supposed, 
and  shows  his  resentment  by  striking  other  children.  Nor  is  cruelty  confined 
to  physical  pain  only.  We  are  early  taught  to  hurt  nobody  by  word  or  deed. 
The  tongue,  or  a  line  of  conduct  painful  to  those  who  love  us,  are  other 
familiar  instances. 

Cruel  children  may  make  cruel  adults,  hence  cruelty  should  always  be 
phecked.     Our  legal  practice  takes  notice  of  the  associative  power  of  cr^el 


DISCIPLINE. 


25 


actions  by  excluding  butchers  from  juries  on  life  and  death  cases.  Children 
should  be  bred  up  in  alihorrence  of  cruelty,  and  taught  that  nothing  should  be 
spoiled  or  destroyed  but  for  the  sake  of  something  better. 

2.  Habit  and  Custom. — These  often  engender  cruelty.  Harsh  laws,  whether 
in  the  home  or  school,  do  this.  Many  foolish  parents  whip  their  children  for 
everything.  Some  teachers  are  too  prone  to  the  use  of  the  cane.  The  teacher, 
by  his  own  example,  and  by  a  kind  and  judicious  rule,  can  do  something  to 
check  this. 

3.  History. — There  is  often  a  large  element  of  fighting  and  killing  in  history. 
Honour  and  renown  fall  more  readily  upon  conquerors  than  upon  others.  The 
press  and  literature  of  the  country  sometimes  aid  in  the  same  way.  As  a  check 
to  this  the  teacher  should  make  a  wise  selection  of  reading  matter,  and  his 
history  lessons  might  be  regulated  for  the  same  purpose. 

i.  Games. — Some  of  our  games  which,  rightly  played  and  under  a  right 
discipline,  are  checks  to  cruelty,  may  be,  and  often  are,  abused  instead  of  used. 
They  may  become  mere  channels  for  cruelty.  Games  must  be  encouraged, 
but  the  teacher  must  strive  to  regulate  and  discipline  them. 

8.  Animals. — Cruelty  often  shows  itself  in  the  treatment  of  animals.  A 
few  natural  history  lessons,  given  with  kindness  as  an  aim,  would  check  this. 
To  cure  cruelty  is  difficult,  and  often  slow.  Fighting,  fagging,  bullying,  and 
tyrannising  are  common  school  forms  of  it.  A  hatred  for  all  forms  must  be 
implanted.  Sound  principles  of  religion  and  morality  will  aid  to  check  it,  and 
the  teacher  nuist  practise  kindness  both  in  w  ord  and  deed. 

6.  Harshness. — "  As  is  the  teacher  such  is  the  child,"  is  a  scholastic  truism 
within  reasonable  limits.  The  plastic  nature  of  children  is  easily  moulded  for 
good  or  evil.  Perhaps  the  teacher's  character  is  the  greatest  influence  bearing 
upon  the  children  in  this  respect.  It  is  useless  to  preach  kindness  and  practise 
harshness.  If  children  are  to  grow  up  with  happy  and  cheerful  tempers,  then 
one  important  essential  is  that  the  teacher  should  be  of  a  happy  and  cheerful 
temperament.  Harshness  is  often  the  attendant  of  impatience.  But  a  teacher 
must  be  patient,  because  the  best  results  of  his  work  are  slow  to  show  them- 
selves. A  bad  temper  is  a  source  of  perpetual  irritation  and  misery  in  school. 
"  A  boy  compelled  for  5^  hours  a  day  to  see  the  countenance  and  hear  the 
voice  of  a  fretful,  unkind,  hard,  or  passionate  man,  is  placed  in  a  school  of 
vice"  (Fitch). 

KINDNESS. 

1.  Its  Scope. — Kindness  is  another  name  for  benevolence,  and  some  autho- 
rities assert  that  benevolence  includes  all  the  virtues.  The  ideal  to  aim  at  is  to 
love  your  neighbour  as  yourself.  It  includes  an  internal  factor— the  cultivation 
of  the  affections  in  oneself;  and  an  external  factor — the  promotion  of  happiness 
in  others. 

2.  Its  Cultivation. — The  teacher  must  practise  benevolence.  He  must  do 
deeds  of  kindness,  for  affection  is  shown  in  good  actions.  He  must  also  teach 
the  children  to  show  kindness  to  each  other.  His  discipline  must  be  gentle, 
firm,  considerate,  and  even  generous.  He  must  nevertheless  be  just  before 
being  generous,  for  the  special  function  of  kindness  only  begins  where  justice 
ends.  The  pupil  should  alSo  be  taught  that  he  owes  slight  services  to  his 
fellows;  i.e.,  he  should  be  ''obliging".  Any  little  service  which  can  be  done 
without  inconvenience  may  be  mutually  demanded.  Finally,  he  should  culti- 
vate sympathy,  which  is  something  more  than  general  benevolence. 

CO'WAIIDICE. 

Cowardice  is  one  of  the  results  of  fear,  and  it  has  in  it  an 
element  of  meanness.  It  produces  a  general  depression  of  tone  ; 
and  mental  depression,  however  arising,  is  exaggerated  distrust  of 
good  and  anticipation  of  evil,     The  susceptibility  to  fear  in  the 


26  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

young,  to  a  certain  extent,  may  be  a  nervous  property ;  but  the 
teacher  must  remember  that  there  are  certain  temperaments,  Hke 
the  passive  and  susceptible,  which  are  prone  to  it.  Its  cure  should 
be  sought  through  its  causes.  An  effort  should  be  made  to  dis- 
cover these  and  to  remove  them. 

1.  Frights. —  Keep  the  children  free  from  all  kinds  of  frights.  Bogey 
stories,  ghosts,  etc.,  should  be  abstained  from  by  those  who  have  to  deal  with 
young  children.  A  fright  may  leave  a  permanent  injurious  effect.  Punish- 
ments, especially  when  they  are  excessive  or  capricious,  often  produce  frights. 
Shutting  children  in  cupboards,  and  locking  them  in  dark  rooms,  are  also 
some  causes  of  frights.  Violent  threats  and  outbursts  of  temper  are  others. 
Avoid  all. 

2.  Ignorance. — This  is  a  fertile  source  of  fear,  and  is  very  productive  of 
cowardice  in  weak  minds.  Knowledge  is  the  remedy.  Perhaps  no  grander 
result  is  accruing  from  the  general  teaching  of  science  than  the  disappearance 
day  by  day  of  those  bits  of  superstition  which  often  terrified  the  people  and  fed 
a  feeling  of  cowardice.  Uncertainty  is  a  species  of  ignorance,  and  is  thus 
sometimes  productive  of  fear  or  cowardice.  Here  the  teacher  should  try  to 
work  through  its  counteractive,  and  to  cultivate  a  feeling  of  composure  or  cool- 
ness in  the  presence  of  danger,  real  or  fancied.  The  pupils  should  be  taught 
to  get  a  measured  estimate  of  the  danger,  and  then  to  make  a  sufficient  effort 
to  overcome  it. 

3.  Ill-Health. — Cowardice  may  frequently  arise  from  a  weak  body,  and 
here  it  might  more  justly  be  called  something  else.  Such  cases  require  kindness, 
sympathy,  and  forbearance.  The  best  remedies  are  beyond  the  teacher's  reach, 
for  they  include  good  or  improved  conditions  of  life.  But  a  certain  amount  of 
familiarity  with,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  objects  feared  may  be  beneficial. 

4.  Association.—  Cowardice  may  arise  by  association.  To  check  or  cure  it, 
form  new  associations  of  a  stronger  and  conflicting  character.  Divert  their 
thoughts,  and  mix  pleasant  things  with  the  diversion. 

5.  Moral  Cowardice. — Here  the  moral  sense  is  weak,  and  needs  cultivation. 
The  higher  emotions  must  be  developed,  and  this  will  be  a  slow  process. 
There  is  a  weakness  of  motive,  both  in  duty  and  in  prudence.  The  cure  is  to 
give  the  child  new  motives.  Withhold  him  from  all  strong  temptations.  It 
often  arises  also  from  weak  intellect.  "  Please,  sir,  I  couldn't  help  it,"  is  a 
common  excuse  ;  and  here  the  pupil  pleads  his  moral  weakness  in  extenuation 
of  his  offence.  Some  punishment  must  be  given,  so  that  he  may  act  differently 
when  the  same  conditions  again  arise. 

6.  Heredity. — A  family,  like  a  nation,  may  be  cowardly  by  nature.  The 
process  of  cure  is  perhaps  the  hardest  and  slowest  of  all. 

OBSDIENCE. 

There  can  be  no  school  without  government,  and  no  govern- 
ment without  obedience.  Obedience  is  a  habit,  and  an  important 
one  both  for  the  individual  and  the  State.  It  is  not  easy  in  its 
first  stages  with  some  children,  as  it  involves  the  submission  of 
their  own  will  to  that  of  another.  The  child  has  to  learn  to  con- 
trol its  own  will,  and  this  control  is  a  resultant  of  several  com- 
ponents. It  has  to  learn  to  respond  to  the  word  of  command,  to 
imitate  movements  at  sight,  to  act  on  a  wish.  There  are  several 
kinds  of  obedience,  the  best  of  which  is  cheerful  and  willing.  The 
motives  are  the  index  of  the  kind, 


DISCIPLINE.  27 

1.  Slave  Obedience. — This  is  such  obedience  as  a  slave  gives  to  a  master ; 
a  dog  to  a  whip  ;  a  horse  to  a  spur  ;  a  child  to  the  cane.  The  motive  is  weak, 
for  it  generally  springs  from  a  hope  of  favours  to  come,  or  from  fear  of  some 
punishment.     It  manufactures  a  fair  proportion  of  hypocrites. 

2.  Military  Obedience. — This  is  the  obedience  of  habit.  There  is  no  why 
or  wherefore  offered.  The  obedience  is  demanded,  and  it  has  to  be  given.  It 
is  a  prompt  species  of  obedience,  brought  about  by  a  perfection  of  drill.  Re- 
petition fixes  it.  There  is  no  cruelty  necessarily  attached  to  it;  no  fear.  It  is 
a  matter  of  habit  pure  and  simple,  such  as  one  sees  in  the  army,  navy,  and  cer- 
tain schools.  It  is  pleasing  to  look  at  because  of  its  smartness,  and  is  apt  to 
impress  the  martinet  official  favourably.  It  is  always  mechanical,  and  gene- 
rally unsympathetic-  Its  failing  is  that  it  leaves  the  character  weak,  and  the 
child  is  launched  into  the  world  subject  to  all  the  dangers  which  threaten  a 
weak  will. 

3.  Cheerful  Obedience. — This  implies  respect  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  for 
the  teacher,  and  it  is  obtained  by  a  skilful  use  of  natural  principles.  Affection 
is  called  to  aid,  for  a  child  obeys  willingly  where  it  loves.  Then,  in  a  kind 
manner,  it  takes  advantage  of  the  sense  of  dependence  in  children,  which  arises 
from  their  ignorance  and  weakness.  These  failings  produce  a  disposition 
to  obey  which  the  teacher  skilfully  uses.  It  also  recognises  the  force  of 
sympathy.  Children  are  very  much  like  sheep  in  this  respect,  for  one  does 
pretty  much  the  same  as  all  the  others.  Hence,  a  word  of  command,  since  it 
appeals  to  the  majority,  appeals  to  all,  and  so  we  find  the  will  freely  submitted 
to  the  authority  of  others  without  becoming  weak.  The  will  is  in  harmony 
with  right,  and  an  association  has  been  set  up  which  shows  that  the  obedience 
springs  from  virtue,  and  not  from  habit  only,  or  from  fear.  Authority  is  in- 
voked, for  the  teacher  is  in  loco  parentis ,  and  must  prove  himself  as  nmch  the 
friend  of  the  scholar  as  the  parent.  The  obedience  is  claimed  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  right  to  yield  it. 

The  personal  equation  is  also  a  great  aid.  By  this  is  meant  an  aggregate 
of  qualities  and  habits  (qualities  mental  and  moral)  possessed  by  the  teacher, 
and  differing  in  quantity  or  quality,  or  both,  in  most  teachers.  It  is  a  charac- 
teristic attribute  which  obtains  for  some  men  the  title  of  "  born  to  command," 
and  among  teachers  the  reputation  of  being  "  a  born  teacher". 

A  healthy  school  opinion  is  another  great  aid  to  cheerful  obedience,  and  the 
teacher  should  cultivate  it.  If  the  school  rules  are  just,  the  children  will 
sympathise  with  them,  and  the  co-operation  of  the  parents  will  be  ensured. 
The  reputation  of  the  school  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  scholars,  and 
their  pride  and  sense  of  responsibility  will  be  thereby  increased.  Their  respect 
will  thus  be  obtained,  and  prompt  and  cheerful  obedience  will  be  the  result. 
School  games  might  also  be  made  an  auxiliary  for  this  purpose.  They  afford 
the  teacher  many  excellent  opportunities  of  establishing  that  relation  between 
him  and  the  scholars  which  is  so  much  desired.  The  efficacy  of  rewards  and 
punishments  as  tending  towards  the  same  end  has  already  been  shown. 

INATTENTION. 

Inattention  is  often  the  fault  of  the  teacher,  and  especially  of 
young  teachers.  To  fix  and  maintain  the  attention  there  are  cer- 
tain laws  of  the  mind  which  must  be  obeyed,  and  any  violation  of 
these  laws  is  sure  to  be  followed  by  more  or  less  inattention. 
There  is  no  guiding  the  young  without  this  power  of  concentration. 

Conditions  of  Attention. 

1.  The  Will. — The  will  is  the  chief  influence,  and  the  chief  stimuli  of  the 
will  are  pleasure  and  pain.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  will  itself  is  a 
growth,  so  that  the  voluntary  attention  of  a  child  rnay  not  be  great.  Concen- 
tration is  weak  in  children, 


28  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

2.  Pleasurable. — The  teaching  must  be  made  pleasurable  by  the  use  of 
natural  methods  and  by  a  pleasing  manner.  Pleasure  supports  the  cause  that 
brings  it,  and  so  the  whole  strength  of  the  mind  is  ensured.  Do  not  make  the 
pleasure  too  great,  or  it  will  defeat  its  own  object.     Novelty  is  an  aid. 

3.  Physical  Conditions.— See  that  the  physical  or  material  surroundings  of 
the  children  are  comfortable  ;  that  they  are  well  seated,  out  of  draughts,  glare, 
«;tc.  Mental  concentration  can  hardly  be  expected  where  there  is  physical  dis- 
comfort. 

4.  Suitability  of  Work. — The  work  should  be  suitable.  It  must  be  within 
the  compass  of  the  children,  and  adapted  to  their  growing  powers  and  liking;;. 
The  lesson  shovild  make  use  of  child  activity,  observation,  and  curiosity.  With 
older  scholars  the  higher  faculties  should  be  worked. 

5.  Assistance.' — A  fair  amount  of  assistance  should  always  be  given,  and 
the  child's  mind  should  not  be  kept  bent  too  long  upon  the  same  subject. 
You  may  force  the  attention,  but  it  is  wearying  and  unprofitable.  There  should 
be  proper  changes  of  work.  The  physical  should  follow  the  mental ;  or  the 
mechanical  might  dovetail  the  mental.  Singing,  drill,  and  writing  are  good 
changes  following  on  the  heavier  lessons  like  arithmetic  and  grammar. 

6.  Obstacles. — Remove  all  distractions,  such  as  sitting  near  an  open  window 
overlooking  a  street,  or  the  proximity  of  some  class  at  a  noisy  lesson,  interrup- 
tions, outbursts  of  temper  or  disorder,  and  all  kindred  obstacle^. 

7.  Punishment. — An  injudicious  use  of  punishment  is  a  great  hindrance  to 
the  maintenance  of  real  attention.  The  child  is  thrown  into  a  strong  and 
antagonistic  emotional  state.  In  a  depressed  and  subdued  child  the  appear- 
ance of  attention  is  not  worth  much. 

IiAZINESS. 

Relatively,  few  people  in  this  climate  are  lazv,  for  climatic 
influences  are  against  idleness.  Public  opinion  condemns  it,  and 
necessity  conflicts  with  it.  The  supposedly  idle  work,  and  some 
of  them  very  hard.  But  laziness  is  used  here  in  a  limited  sense. 
It  is  the  refusal  to  perform,  or  the  ill-performed  task,  which  is 
called  idleness.  Of  course,  every  teacher  will  meet  with  a  few 
exceptional  cases,  where  the  children  are  "  bone  "  lazy,  and  often 
some  physical  or  constitutional  cause  will  be  found  for  this.  The 
treatment  of  laziness  will  vary  with  its  origin, 

I.  Constitutional  Xiaziness. 

1.  Health.^ — This  may  be  the  result  of  weak  or  delicate  health,  and  in  such 
cases  it  should  be  kindly  dealt  with.  The  tasks  are  too  much  for  the  pupil, 
and  should   be  lightened. 

2.  Teacher. — It  may  spring  from  the  teacher.  Ignorance  or  indifference  to 
the  elementary  principles  of  child  life  will  generate  laziness.  There  must  be  a 
natural  application  of  the  force  which  nature  has  supplied— child  activity.  If 
the  task  set  does  not  make  much  demand  upon  this  activity,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  despise  and  reject  it. 

3.  Natural  Aptitudes. — ^The  same  may  be  said  of  the  neglect  of  natural 
aptitudes.  They  are  strong  in  children,  and  need  careful  regulation.  The 
child  will  neglect  the  set  task  to  indulge  in  his  beloved  pursuit.  Watch  him, 
see  what  it  is,  and  give  him  a  surfeit  of  it.  This  is  Locke's  recommendation. 
Keep  him  hard  at  work  on  something,  so  as  to  form  the  habit  of  industry — the 
something  of  his  choice  which  has  proved  the  disturbing  factor.  He  will  weary 
of  it,  and  return  to  his  set  task  with  relief. 

H.  Habit  Iiaziness. — An  indolent  disposition   is  not  always 

the  result  of  constitutional  weakness,     It  may  also  be  formed  by 


DISCIPLINE.  29 

habit,  and  the  habit  must  be  checked  before  it  passes  beyond 
treatment.  It  is  easier  to  bend  the  pHant  twig  than  the  hardened 
stem. 

1.  Kindness.— A  little  kind  conversation  may  be  sufficient.  The  boy  may 
respond  to  the  interest  thus  kindly  shown  in  him.  The  desire  to  please  a  kind 
teacher  may  prove  a  stronger  motive  than  the  desire  to  idle.  His  self-regard 
should  also  be  appealed  to.  He  should  be  made  to  understand  that  he  is  the 
actual  loser  by  his  idleness,  by  pointing  out  his  present  and  prospective  losses. 
The  prospective  losses  are  generally  too  distant  in  time  to  appeal  to  children, 
but  their  conjunction  may  strengthen  the  appeal  to  his  present  losses. 

2.  Shame. — If  kindness  fails,  then  try  a  little  good-natured  banter.  Let 
there  be  no  feeling  or  vindictiveness  in  your  tone  or  manner,  but  let  the  child 
understand  that  he  has  sunk  in  your  estimation  and  that  of  the  class. 

3.  Punishment. — This  should  be  used  with  care,  for  it  is  fatal  to  success  to 
set  up  unpleasant  associations.  Neglected  work  may  be  done  in  playtime,  or 
impositions  may  be  given  where  they  can  be  done  honestly,  and  without  making 
much  demand  upon  the  teacher's  own  time.  Only  in  such  cases  as  those  in 
which  it  assumes  an  obstinate  form  should  corporal  punishment  be  used,  and  it 
may  be  said  of  punishment  generally  that  it  is  often  expensive  and  deceptive  in 
cases  of  idleness. 

STUPIDITY.— This  may  be  a  gift  from  the  parents  or  the 

teacher. 

1.  When  Bestowed  by  the  Parents. — When  nature  is  responsible  there  is 
nothing  for  it  but  patience  and  kindness.  The  ordinary  school  curriculum 
does  not  suit  such  children,  nor  should  they  be  placed  under  it.  The  London 
School  Board  has  humanely  recognised  this  fact  by  providing  a  special  curri- 
culum and  central  classes  for  such  children.  The  school  and  its  work  want  to 
be  made  especially  attractive,  and  the  teaching  requires  to  be  very  largely  com- 
posed of  kindergarten,  hand  and  eye  training,  and  simple  object  lessons. 
Under  no  conditions  should  these  children  be  forced,  for  the  intellectual  wealth 
of  a  country  lies  in  the  cultivation  of  its  ability,  and  not  in  the  forcing  of  its 
mediocrity. 

2.  When  bestowed  by  the  Teacher.— The  child  may  be  badly  classified,  and 
this  may  breed  stupidity  from  lack  of  apprehension.  The  teacher  may  be 
unmethodical,  or  not  properly  acquainted  with  his  subject.  He  may  be  cai-eless 
or  inaccurate  in  describing  or  informing,  or  in  -the  correction  of  exercises.  Or 
there  may  be  a  lack  of  illustration  and  experiment.  He  may  be  harsh  ox  cruel 
in  his  manner,  and  so  chill  or  freeze  the  efforts  of  the  timid,  the  weak,  or  the 
shy.  His  questions  may  be  badly  framed,  badly  put,  and  put  at  the  wrong 
time,  and  there  may  be  no  skill  in  dealing  with  the  answers  given.  And  gene- 
rally there  may  be  too  much  ignorance  of  the  elementary  laws  of  the  mind  to 
deal  with  its  training  efficiently. 

TRUTHFUIiNESS. 

This  is  a  wide  term,  including  as  it  does  not  only  accuracy  in 
obtaining  and  stating  facts,  but  sincerity,  candour,  ingenuousness, 
uprightness,  respect  for  the  property  of  others  and  for  their  own  ; 
honesty  in  speech  and  time,  as  well  as  in  money  or  goods.  Lying 
will  sometimes  supplant  it,  and  it  must  be  the  constant  effort  of 
the  teacher  to  check  the  one  and  to  cultivate  the  other.  To 
grapple  with  untruth,  seek  out  its  causes,  and  deal  with  them. 

I.  Causes  of  Untruth. — These  may  be  various. 


30  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

1.  Cowardice  (fear). — There  may  be  a  desire  to  evade  some  punishment,  to 
shirk  some  pain.     It  is  a  ready  and  apparently  cheap  cover  for  any  fault. 

2.  Gain.— It  may  be  to  secure  some  gain,  to  favour  some  cheating  transac- 
tion, to  remove  some  obstacle,  to  win  some  contest. 

3.  Weakness. — It  may  spring  from  weakness,  either  physical,  mental,  or 
moral.  The  physical  weakling  may  fear  physical  pain ;  the  moral  weakling 
may  be  the  product  of  surrounding  circumstances ;  the  mental  weakling  is  a 
species  of  fool,  and  is  generally  to  be  pitied. 

i.  Vanity. — With  older  pupils  it  may  arise  from  vanity.  A  lively  and  fertile 
imagination  is  drawn  upon  for  facts  to  establish  the  fame  of  the  offender  for 
some  point  of  excellence.  There  is  such  an  overweening  opinion  of  self,  such 
unbounded  belief  in  one's  own  worth  and  capacity,  that  the  fancied  poten- 
tialities of  the  individual  are  dished  up  as  actual  occurrences.  But  in  such  cases 
memory  is  generally  weaker  than  imagination,  and  these  flights  of  fancy  are 
sure  to  stand  self-revealed  sooner  or  later. 

5.  Malevolence. — There  may  be  a  desire  for  revenge ;  to  hurt  by  word  ;  to 
break  the  ninth  commandment,  so  that  they  may  break  the  eighth. 

II.  Treatment. — The  teacher  must  look  beyond  the  act  itself, 
and  deal  with  the  motive.  He  should  aim  to  implant  the  principles 
of  honesty  in  the  disposition,  rather  than  to  prohibit  certain  acts. 
He  should  on  the  first  occasion  seem  surprised,  and  gently  reprove 
with  an  appearance  of  sorrow.  If  this  be  insufficient,  rebuke  the 
child,  and  show  yourself  very  much  displeased.  There  should  be 
a  removal  of  confidence,  which  should  only  be  gradually  restored 
after  penitence  has  proved  its  genuineness  by  rigid  truthfulness. 
The.  penalties  attaching  to  lying  should  be  placed  before  the  child. 
People  shun,  distrust,  and  despise  a  liar.  No  one^will  knowingly 
employ  him,  and  no  good  people  will  willingly  associate  with  him. 
Shame  and  contempt  can  and  should  be  shown  if  necessary.  Lying 
should  always  be  spoken  of  with  detestation,  as  a  quality  totally 
inconsistent  with  the  character  of  an  honest  man.  The  religious 
aspect  of  the  question  must  be  pointed  out  and  enforced — the 
Bible  is  fertile  in  punishments  following  on  this  vice.  The  social 
necessity  for  truth  should  be  explained,  to  the  older  scholars  at 
least.  The  whole  fabric  of  society  and  the  credit  of  nations  de- 
pend upon  the  sentiment  of  truth.  Finally,  the  teacher's  own 
example  must  be  all  that  is  demanded  of  the  pupils,  or  they  will 
readily  see  that  he  is  seeking  to  force  a  commodity  upon  them 
which  finds  no  favour  with  himself. 

Honesty. — This  is  a  wider  term  than  truthfulness.  It  will 
include  all  that  is  there  expressed,  and  something  more.  It  will 
embrape  the  full  teachings  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  commandments. 
It  forbids  hands  to  pick  or  steal,  or  tongues  to  bear  false  witness. 
It  includes  the  right  use  of  school  property,  the  scholar's  clothes, 
books  and  playthings  ;  the  right  place  m  class  ;  the  honest  produc- 
tion of  work  ;  and  it  excludes  all  copying,  prevarication,  or  hybrid 


DISCIPLINE.  31 

truths.  It  rejects  the  suppressio  veri,  the  suggestio  falsi,  some  forms 
of  diplomacy,  much  business  "  cleverness,"  and  any  transactions 
where  advantage  overrides  justice.  Its  treatment  will  be  similar 
to  that  adopted  for  truthfulness,  with  the  addition  that  wherever 
actual  theft  has  occurred,  compensation  or  restoration  should  be 
insisted  on  where  possible. 

Tale-telling. — A  clear  distinction  may  be  drawn  between  this 
and  untruthfulness.  The  motive  is  different.  In  the  one  case  the 
motive  is  bad,  in  the  other  it  may  or  may  not  be  good.  The  tale 
may  be  truth  —and  something  more.  It  is  a  vice  in  the  clothing 
of  a  virtue.  There  is  an  appearance  of  virtue  m  the  apparent 
desire  to  check  some  breach  of  discipline  or  morals:  but  this  may 
be  subservient  to  the  desire  to  inflict  pain ;  to  seek  revenge  ;  to 
indulge  in  spite.  Or  it  may  include  the  element  of  toadyism  ;  the 
desire  to  curry  favour.  This  should  be  checked,  but  treated 
tenderly.  So  far  as  it  is  a  desire  to  please,  the  motive  is  good,  but 
weak.     Divert  it  into  healthier  channels,  and  try  to  strengthen  it. 

COPYING, 

I.  Its  Sources. — Children  may  copy  because  they  do  not  know 
how  to  do  the  work  set  them.  This  ignorance  may  or  may  not  be 
the  fault  of  the  teacher,  but  it  will  be  his  business  to  discover  and 
remove  it.  It  may  arise  from  idleness  or  indifference,  and  a  reluc- 
tance to  make  the  requisite  mental  effort  at  the  time  of  the  test  or 
other  exercise  ;  or  there  may  have  been  persistent  idleness,  which 
may  have  escaped  the  notice  or  may  have  been  beyond  the  capa- 
city of  the  teacher  to  deal  with.  Where  inattention  is  the  cause, 
there  is  a  sense  of  guilt.  The  child  does  not  know  that  which 
might  be  reasonably  expected  of  him,  fears  the  consequence  of  his 
offence,  and  so  falls  a  victim  to  this  form  of  dishonesty.  Nervous- 
ness, or  shyness,  or  physical  weakness,  may  handicap  a  boy  when 
the  explanation  is  being  made  to  the  class,  or  the  information 
given.  The  power  of  concentration  may  be  too  weak  to  meet  the 
demand  involved  by  some  lessons.  Worse  than  all  is  the  case  in 
which  the  moral  tone  is  bad,  and  of  which  copying  is  merely  one 
evidence. 

II.  Its  Treatment. — The  following  are  some  of  the  means  at 

the  teacher's  disposal  for  the  prevention  of  copying : — 

1.  Mechanical  Means. — Copying  should  be  made  practically  impossible  by 
the  arrangement  of  the  classes  and  pupils.  Where  possible  they  should  be 
widely  spaced,  and  sharp  supervision  should  be  maintained,  and  different 
examples  should  be  given  to  different  pupils.     Any  facility  for  copying  left 


32  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

within  the  reach  of  a  pupil,  and  especially  a  young  pupil,  is  a  piece  of  cruel 
injustice.  The  moral  sense  of  many  children  is  not  highly  developed,  and  it 
should  be  the  teacher's  function  to  see  that  no  undue  strain  should  be  placed 
upon  it  at  this  stage  of  its  growth. 

2.  The  Teacher. — The  teacher  himself  may  be  a  cause  of  copying.  If  the 
child  copies  from  ignorance,  the  cause  may  be  insufficient  help  from  the  teacher  ; 
if  from  idleness,  the  teacher  may  be  somewhat  to  blame  for  the  growth  and 
strengthening  of  the  habit  ;  if  from  inattention,  the  teacher  may  again  be  to 
blame,  for- either  his  supervision  is  weak,  or  his  methods  of  teaching  may  be 
bad,  or  both  causes  may  operate.  Where  nervousness  or  shyness  are  the  agents, 
no  efforts  may  have  been  made  to  reduce  or  remove  these  inflictions.  Where 
the  ino?-al  sense  is  weak,  the  teacher  must  see  that  there  is  nothing  in  his 
observed  life  which  may  offer  the  least  encouragement  to  deceit.  The  teacher 
who  cannot  be  uniformly  trusted  in  the  absence  of  his  superior  is  soon  measured 
and  estimated  at  his  proper  worth  by  the  class  ;  and  he  must  not  be  surprised 
if  some  weak  or  vicious  member  of  the  class  should  copy  him  as  well  as  his 
neighbour's  lessons. 

3.  Moral  Means. — A  sound  moral  tone  is  the  best  antidote  to  copying. 
Cultivate  this  ;  live  up  to  it ;  place  the  honour  of  the  class  in  the  hands  of  the 
pupils  themselves ;  foster  a  pride  in  maintaining  it ;  give  proper  assistance  in 
every  case ;  make  the  most  suitable  arrangements  to  reduce  the  temptation  ; 
and  then  there  will  be  but  little  fear  of  copying, 

ITNPUNCTUAI.ITY. 

I.  Its  Causes. — These  must  be  carefully  ascertained,  and  dealt 
'with  separately.  The  causes  may  be  various,  requiring  different 
treatment ;  but  the  majority  of  cases  will  be  traced  to  accident, 
habit,  indifference,  or  some  form  of  temptation. 

1.  Accident. — Here  it  should  be  overlooked.  If  the  accidents  become  too 
numerous,  it  then  passes  into  carelessness,  aud  verges  upon  the  second  cause 
—habit. 

2.  Habit. — -This  may  arise  from  laziness,  or  dilatoriness,  and  in  such  cases 
play  should  be  stopped,  and  some  task  set  whilst  the  others  are  at  play.  If  the 
habit  persists,  shame  might  be  used;  and,  as  a  last  resource,  corporal  punish- 
ment or  expulsion  should  be  tried,  for  then  it  has  become  sheer  obstinacy,  or 
chronic  disobedience. 

3.  Indifference. — Some  children  do  not  care  whether  they  are  punctual  or 
not,  and  in  such  cases  the  moral  sense  is  generally  weak.  The  evil  effects  of 
this  habit  upon  the  child's  future  prospects  might  be  pointed  out.  No  one 
will  continue  to  employ  an  unpunctual  person.  If  the  indifference  passes  into 
habit,  in  so  far  as  it  produces  the  same  results  it  should  be  treated  in  the  same 
way. 

4.  Temptation. — The  appearance  of  some  local  show,  regatta,  race,  circus, 
etc.,  or  the  influence  of  some  evil  companion,  may  cause  occasional  backslid- 
ings.  Do  not  punish  such  cases,  but  appeal  to  the  boy's  better  nature.  Urge 
him  to  cultivate  good  habits  and  a  stronger  sense  of  duty.  Show  him  that  to 
withstand  such  occasional  temptations  he  will  require  some  moral  courage,  and 
urge  him  to  show  his  better  nature  by  making  the  effort. 

II.  To   Ensure   Punctuality.— The    general    means    usually 

adopted  to  ensure  punctuality  are  as  follows:  — 

1.  Registration. — Give  each  child  a  red  mark  who  is  punctual,  and  each 
late  child  a  black  mark.  Apart  from  other  considerations,  a  pride  in  scoring 
the  creditable  red  marks  is  sufficient  stimulus  for  many.  At  the  end  of  the 
quarter  a  summary  of  attendances,  punctual  and  unpunctual,  should  be  sent 
to  the  parents,  and  an  appeal  made  for  their  co-operation. 


DISCIPLINE.  ,  33 

2.  Prizes,  Rewards.— All  the  various  forms  of  rewards  may  be  brought  into 
use.  A  system  of  tangible  rewards  should  be  adopted.  95  per  cent,  of  regular 
and  punctual  attendances  might  entitle  to  a  quarterly  card.  Two  quarterly 
cards  might  be  exchanged  for  a  prize  (a  book) ;  whilst  100  per  cent,  of  regular 
and  punctual  attendances  might  entitle  to  a  bronze  medal.  A  continuation  of 
such  excellent  attendance  and  punctuality  might  entitle  to  a  silver  medal.  This 
is  practically  the  system  adopted  by  the  London  School  Board.  The  practice 
of  awarding  a  card  weekly  for  lo  punctual  attendances  may  or  may  not  be 
adopted.     Much  can  be  said  both  for  and  against  it. 

3.  Moral  Means. —       \   Both  of  these  have  been  dealt  with  above  under  the 

4.  Punitive  Means. —  )    head  of  "  Sources  ". 

TRITANCY. 
I.  Its  Causes. 

1.  Restraint. — School  life  is  a  great  restraint  to  some  children.  They 
naturally  love  their  freedom,  and  view  the  school  as  an  infringement  of  their 
liberty.  Freedom  is  a  pleasurable  release  from  restraint,  and  the  pursuit  of 
pleasure  is  one  of  the  strongest  motives  in  humanity.  Such  children  are  acutely 
sensible  to  the  coercion  of  the  school,  especially  when  they  are  children  of  great 
natural  energy.     The  restraints  of  school  discipHne  are  prohibitions  of  pleasure. 

2.  Parents. — An  ill-regulated,  ill-disciplined,  or  immoral  home  will  often 
produce  truants.  Self-indulgent  parents,  with  a  weak  sense  of  duty,  and  over- 
indulgent  parents,  can  hardly  expect  a  sense  of  duty  to  be  developed  in  their 
children.  The  training  of  the  will  is  neglected  or  misdirected.  The  result  is 
a  tendency  in  their  children  to  seek  their  own  pleasures  in  their  own  way  and 
at  their  own  time.  Unrestrained  at  home,  they  will  not  wiUingly  face  the 
restraint  of  a  school.  Nor  is  this  the  whole  of  the  parental  influence.  Heredity 
may  be  a  factor  in  truancy.  The  love  of  roving,  the  hatred  of  discipline,  may 
be  born  in  the  child,  and  local  circumstances  may  be  unfortunate  enough  to 
develop  them. 

3.  Children. — The  influence  of  child  on  child,  the  sharp  over  the  dull,  the 
strong  over  the  weak,  the  great  over  the  small,  may  show  itself  in  truancy. 
The  strong  and  domineering  boy,  prone  to  truancy,  is  sure  to  be  a  centre  of 
truancy.  The  passionate  boy,  with  strong  appetites,  the  weak,  the  easy  going, 
the  restless,  the  fickle, 'the  lazy,  the  school  haters,  the  rovers,  the  impulsive, 
the  self-pleasing,  all  may  be  led  away  by  mutual  influeuce,  by  a  fine  day,  a 
local  show,  or  a  local  race. 

i.  Teacher. — An  objectionable  teacher  produces  truancy.  Harshness, 
cruelty,  irritability,  injustice,  carelessness,  or  incompetency  may  produce  it. 
Perhaps  cruelty  is  as  productive  of  truancy  as  any  cause.  A  lack  of  sympathy 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  the  feeling  that  the  boy's  position  in  the  class  is  a 
degrading  one,  or  one  to  be  derided,  the  constant  wounding  of  the  child's  self- 
love  and  self-esteem  are  all  possible  causes. 

8.  Managers.~The  increasing  demands  of  the  Education  Department  are 
making  truancy  from  this  source  more  and  more  impossible.  But  managers 
who  maintain  schools  in  old,  dull,  ill-lighted,  ill-ventilated,  and  often  ill-placed 
rooms,  with  a  minimum  staff,  with  the  poorest  and  a  minimum  quantity  of 
apparatus,  must  not  be  surprised  if  some  truancy  is  laid  at  their  doors.  Chil- 
dren will  not  willingly  seek  such  a  gloomy,  unhealthy  life.  Some  will  play  the 
truant  first. 

n.  Its  Treatment.— The  treatment  of  truants  is  especially 
difficult,  but  it  is  not  a  case  for  corporal  punishment. 

I.  Pleasure.— The  class  of  children  who  play  truant  from  the  feeling  of 
restraint  associated  with  school  must  be  attracted  into  the  place.  The  building 
should  be  bright,  roomy,  airy,  and  well  furnished.  It  should  always  be  com- 
fortable and  healthy  whatever  the  weather.  The  time  table  should  be  based 
on  scientific  principles  ;   there  should  be  periods  of  play  each  session ;   the 

3 


34  ^      A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

teaching  should  be  made  as  attractive  as  possible  ;  and  the  recreative  side  of 
the  school  work  should  be  developed.  The  children  will  thus  gradually  see 
that  school  is  a  happy  place  despite  its  restraints,  and  that  to  go  to  school  is 
not  an  infliction,  but  an  advantage. 

2.  Impositions. — In  other  cases  than  the  last,  treat  with  increasing  severity. 
If  the  co-operation  of  the  parent  is  obtained,  and  the  parental  influence  is  suffi- 
cient, impositions  can  be  given  to  be  done  at  home.  But  this  is  rarely  the  case, 
hence  they  must  be  done  at  school  if  they  cannot  be  done  at  home.  The  staff 
would  have  to  stay  behind  in  turns  for  this  purpose. 

Objections  to  this  Method. 

(i)  Parents  often  want  their  children  ;  are  often  unsympathetic  ;  and  sometimes 
even  hostile. 

(2)  It  throws  extra  work  upon  the  teachers. 

(3)  In  large  schools  it  interferes  with  the  work  of  the  school  keepers  very  often. 

(4)  It  breeds  a  hatred  for  school  work. 

3.  Detention. — Simple  detention  with  no  imposition  is  preferable  to  im- 
positions ;  but  it  is  open  to  the  same  objections  principally. 

I.  Fines. — Stop  the  play,  and  deprive  of  any  other  privileges  prized  by  the 
children  of  the  school.     This  is  only  available  for  beginners. 

5.  Home  Treatment. — It  is  best  to  write  or  visit,  or  invite  a  visit  from  the 
parent,  and  to  place  the  whole  matter  in  their  hands.  Show  that  truancy  is  an 
offence  as  much  against  home  authority  as  school  authority — some  think  more 
so.  Have  nothing  to  do  with  the  punishment  yourself,  if  you  can  help  it.  The 
teacher's  work  will  be  to  win  the  boy  into  the  school,  not  to  thrash  him  in  ; 
and  at  the  same  time  to  try  and  cultivate  his  moral  sense. 

6.  Expulsion. — As  a  last  resource  this  may  be  desirable  and  efficacious 
where  it  can  be  done.  It  helps  to  awaken  hostile  and  indifferent  parents  to  a 
proper  sense  of  their  duty. 

7.  Truant  Schools. — These  are  only  used  for  incorrigibles,  and  where  they 
are  available  expulsion  becomes  unnecessary.  The  disciplinary  life  of  a  truant 
school  for  a  period  has  been  found  the  best  treatment  for  bad  cases  yet  devised. 

HABIT. — The  best  way  to  discipline  children  is  to  help  them 
in  the  formation  of  good  habits,  for  then  the  discipline  will  be  a 
lasting  influence.  For  this  purpose  both  the  nature  and  training 
of  habit  should  be  known. 

I.  Nature  of  Habit. — After  a  thing  has  been  done  a  certain 
number  of  times,  there  is  a  tendency  to  perform  the  action  again 
on  the  slightest  stimulus.  After  many  repetitions,  the  action 
becomes  very  mechanical,  and  almost  automatic.  In  this  respect 
it  resembles  instinctive  or  reflex  action.  As  a  rule,  to  perform  an 
act  requires  a  stimulus,  and  there  is  desire  or  compulsion  prompt- 
ing to  the  action.  As  habit  grows,  desire  or  compulsion  becomes 
weaker,  and  a  fixed  disposition  to  act  in  the  way  specified  is 
formed.     This  shows  two  facts  as  essential. 

1.  The  Psychological  Fact. — By  this  is  meant  there  is  a  fixed  disposition  to 
perform  the  action,  and  that,  too,  without  the  promptings  of  desire. 

2.  The  Physiological  Fact. — This  means  that  there  is  a  modification  of  the 
nerve  structures  involved,  and  this  depends  largely  upon  nutrition.  A  well- 
nourished  child  is  a  favourable  subject  to  work  upon. 

The  habit  may  be  mental  as  well  as  physical.     We  are  said  to 

have  a  habit  of  thought  when  we  are  subject  to  recurring  modes 


DISCIPLINE.  35 

of  mental  operation.  Association  is  another  element.  Some 
stimulus  gives  rise  to  some  movement,  and  by  association  there  is 
a  tendency  for  the  one  to  recall  the  other. 

II.  The  Training  of  Habit. — Its  importance  is  obvious,  for 
habit  is  called  second  nature.  We  are  creatures  of  habit,  but  we 
ought  not  to  be  its  slaves.  The  teacher's  function  is  to  form  good 
habits.  To  do  this  he  must  induce  his  scholars  to  make  an  effort, 
which  must  be  sufficient  to  act  as  a  motive  force.  Then  there  must 
be  plenty  of  repetition,  that  the  habit  may  grow  and  become  inde- 
pendent of  the  will.  Child  life  is  the  best  period  for  this  training. 
Example  is  necessary,  as  this  brings  into  play  the  faculty  for 
imitation,  and  lends  consistency  to  the  growth.  Then  the  response 
to  the  stimulus  must  be  prompt,  for  uncertainty  and  delay  in 
response  show  imperfect  habit.  This  course  of  training  must  be 
pursued  until  the  child  finds  it  produces  discomfort  to  deny  the 
habit,  or  difficulty  to  alter  or  regulate  it. 

CHARACTEIt. — The  cultivation  of  good  habits  is  a  great  aid 
to  the  formation  of  a  good  character,  and  this  should  be  looked 
upon  as  the  ultimate  goal  of  all  discipline.  The  term  has  a  wide 
range  of  meaning,  but  in  education  it  is  generally  used  to  denote 
in  a  special  way  a  good  or  virtuous  disposition  of  the  feelings  and 
of  the  will. 

"  A  perfect  moral  character  includes  the  familiar  habits  in- 
volved in  a  wide  pursuit  of  individual  good,  such  as  industry, 
orderliness,  temperance,  the  habitual  control  of  the  feelings,  or 
moderation,  and  the  firm  control  of  the  thoughts  involved  in 
reasonableness.  It  includes  further  the  habits  implied  in  a  perfect 
fulfilment  of  human  duty,  as  obedience,  courtesy,  veracity,  justice, 
and  beneficence."  The  essential  ingredient  is  fixity  of  disposition  in 
right  directions. 

But  a  perfect  character  also  shows  itself  in  a  habitual  and  half 
mechanical  pursuit  of  a  number  of  detached  ends  or  forms  ot 
good ;  it  includes  a  disposition  to  reflect  and  deliberate  when 
occasion  requires. 

Its  Cultivation. — A  mere  glance  at  the  circumstances  of  early 
life  tells  us  that  the  actions  of  a  child  are  determined  and  regu- 
lated to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  wishes  and  commands  of 
others,  i.e.,  the  first  stage  is  to  teach  the  child  obedience.  Some- 
times it  will  be  necessary  to  restrain  or  command,  sometimes  to 
persuade,  advise,  or  enlighten  ;  hence  a  study  of  character  in  each 
child  is  absolutely  necessary. 


36  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

The  most  powerful  stimulus  to  goodness  in  others  is  goodness  in 
oneself.  Any  one  who  can  resist  the  influence  of  this  mutual  good- 
ness, showing  itself  in  actions  good  to  giver  and  receiver,  is  a  fit 
subject  for  the  government  of  fear,  and  nothing  else.  But  the  good 
and  kind  teacher  will  require  to  study  character  so  as  to  be  able 
successfully  to  discriminate  between  the  two  classes.  "  Do  unto 
others  as  they  do  unto  you,"  is  as  much  as  can  be  expected  of 
children  in  this  direction  ;  and  the  teacher  who  does  not  study 
character  will  probably  ask  too  much  or  too  little,  to  the  injury  of 
all  concerned. 

There  must  be  an  appeal  to  ihQ  feelings.,  for  it  is  wrong  to  work 
by  fear  or  pain  alone.  No  good  character  could  be  formed  in  that 
way.  The  maxims  of  punishment  must  be  grasped  and  applied 
upon  an  individual  study  of  character.  In  this  way  the  disposi- 
tions that  lead  to  disorder  and  offence  can  be  checked  in  the  bud  ; 
and,  indeed,  until  there  has  been  time  for  such  training  to  operate, 
the  mind  should  not  be  exposed  to  temptation.  For  this  purpose 
the  social  affections  should  be  cultivated. 

Activity  should  be  recognised  and  utilised — not  repressed.  A 
child  of  an  active  temperament  should  be  kept  busy;  whilst  less 
demands  should  be  made  upon  the  weak  and  languid.  Hence  the 
work,  to  be  profitable,  needs  differentiation.  So  far  as  the  large 
classes  of  modern  schools  will  permit,  this  principle  of  child  life 
should  never  be  neglected.  Character  will  only  be  good  and 
strong  so  long  as  it  is  built  on  the  regulated  forces  of  nature. 

The  temperament  must  be  recognised  and  allowed  for.  The 
sanguine,  the  boastful,  the  self-assured  may  need  checking ;  whilst 
the  nervous,  the  timid,  and  the  shy  will  need  encouragement. 
The  worse  faults  of  child  nature  must  be  treated  with  care,  kind- 
ness, and  patience.  The  best  results  of  the  teacher's  efforts  will 
often  be  slow  to  show  themselves,  for  character  is  the  growth  of 
years. 

Variety  is  the  spice  of  life,  and  this  is  remarkably  true  of  child 
life.  Monotony  must  not  be  allowed  to  deaden  the  budding  gems 
of  nobler  thoughts  and  nobler  aspirations  which  may  be  vStruggling 
to  show  themselves.  Sustained  effort  is  difficult  to  children,  and 
it  must  ever  be  remembered  that  the  moral  side  of  child  life  often 
demands  mightier  efforts  than  anything  submitted  in  the  school 
curriculum. 


DISCIPLINE.  37 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I.— Why  should  young  teachers  be  restricted  from  the  use  of  corporal  punishment, 
(a)  for  the  sake  of  their  scholars  ?  (b)  for  their  own  sake  ? 

<2. — Point  out  some  of  the  ways  in  which  school  discipline  may  be  useful  in  producing 
habits  of  ready  obedience,  and  name  some  characteristic  features  of  good  discipline. 

3. — Show  that  rewards  may  be  usefully  employed  in  stimulating  children  to  work. 
Name  some  rewards  that  may  be  connected  with  the  daily  work  of  the  school. 

4. — Show  that  clear  distinction  may  be  drawn  between  truthfulness  and  "  telling 
tales  ".  How  can  older  boys  be  employed  in  assisting  to  maintain  the  discipline  of  a 
school  ? 

5.— Show  that  inattention  in  a  class  may  proceed  from  the  faults  of  a  teacher,  or 
from  causes  other  than  faults  in  the  children  themselves. 

6. — Show  that  harshness  and  untruthfulness  in  a  teacher  influence  the  character  and 
behaviour  of  children  out  of  school. 

7. — Show  that  copying,  especially  in  arithmetic,  may  be  the  result  of  bad  teaching 
or  of  bad  discipline.  What  precautions  would  you  take  to  prevent  the  growth  of  such  a 
habit  ? 

8.— Is  it  a  sufficient  definition  of  good  discipline  to  say  that  "  it  is  the  power  exer- 
cised by  the  teacher  over  the  children  "  ?  Give  some  distinguishing  marks  of  good 
discipline. 

9. — Show  that  what  is  called  stupidity  in  children  may  arise  from  faults  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher.     Name  some  of  the  faults. 

lo. — Name  some  of  the  chief  causes  of  truancy  arising  from  faults  in  the  teachers, 
or  parents,  or  children.  What  steps  were  taken  in  your  school  to  acquaint  parents  with 
irregularity  of  attendance  ?     How  were  truants  punished  ? 

II. — What  is  truthfulness?  Name  some  ways  in  which  a  child  may  be  untruthful 
in  act  without  saying  a  word. 

12. — Were  any  special  means  used  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  the  parents  of  the 
children  who  attended  your  class ;  and,  if  so,  what  was  the  result  ? 

13. — By  what  special  means  would  you  try  to  promote  truthfulness  and  punctuality 
among  your  scholars  ?  State  the  motives  which  you  would  lay  before  your  scholars  as 
incentives  to  the  constant  observance  of  truth  and  punctuality. 

14. — Give  your  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  rewards  and  punishments ;  and  state  the 
principle  on  which  you  think  they  ought  to  be  administered. 

15. — Mention  any  difficulties  you  may  have  met  with  in  the  effort  to  control  the 
children  you  had  to  teach,  and  state  how  those  difficulties  were  overcome. 

16. — Illustrate  from  your  practical  experience,  in  a  day  school  or  elsewhere,  the  vital 
importance  of  securing  good  order  in  a  school. 

17. — How  were  you  accustomed  to  deal  with  dull,  lazy,  or  obstinate  children,  and 
what  special  means  did  you  adopt  for  securing  the  attention  of  the  children  in  your 
division  ? 

18. — What  methods  have  been  adopted  within  your  knowledge  for  correcting  these 
faults  in,  children:  inattention,  untruthfulness,  laziness,  impertinence,  sullenness ;  and 
with  what  effect  ? 

19. — It  is  said  in  the  "  Instructions  to  Inspectors  "  that,  besides  the  usual  course  of 
instruction,  an  excellent  school  "  seeks  by  other  means  to  be  of  service  to  the  children 
who  attend  it ".  Can  you  name  any  such  means,  and  say  which  of  them  are  likely  to  be 
most  effective  ? 

20. — How  far  is  it  in  the  power  of  a  teacher,  by  other  means  than  school  lessons,  to 
improve  the  habits,  manners,  and  character  of  the  children  of  a  school  ?  Mention  any 
ways  you  know  by  which  a  teacher  may  exert  useful  influence  in  these  respects. 

21. — What  is  meant  by  good  discipline  ?  What  are  the  means  and  ways  of  improv- 
ing discipline  ? 

22. — What  are  the  best  expedients  you  know  for  quickening  and  securing  the  atten- 
tion of  a  languid  or  disorderly  class  ? 

23. — In  some  countries  the  teachers  are  absolutely  forbidden  to  make  use  of  corporal 
punishment  in  any  form.  Say  by  what  other  means  it  is  possible  to  maintain  discipline 
under  such  conditions. 

24. — What  is  a  criticism  lesson  ?  Under  the  head  of  "  discipline,"  what  points  would 
you  attend  to  in  such  a  lesson  ? 

25.— In  what  ways  may  success  in  class  teaching  be  promoted  by  studying  the 
characters  of  children  ? 


38 


CHAPTER  III. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

I.  Its  Basis. — A  school  may  be  classified  on  a  single  or  on  a 
plural  basis.  On  a  plural  basis  classification  is  a  simple  matter, 
but  on  a  single  basis  there  is  more  difficulty.  In  the  former  case 
a  pupil  simply  goes  to  the  class  in  each  subject  for  which  he  is 
most  suited,  but  in  the  latter  case  the  following  facts  must  be 
borne  in  mind  :— 

1.  Attainments  differ. 

2.  Ability  differs. 

3.  Age  may,  in  special  cases,  have  to  be  considered. 

4.  Special  aptitudes  and  different  rates  of  development  in  different  children 
have  to  be  allowed  for. 

Generally,  age  and  length  of  time  in  school  will  count  for  little  or 
nothing.  Equal  attainments  are  the  only  real  basis  on  which 
to  proceed. —Most  schools  adopt  the  single  basis,  but  perhaps  it 
is  best  to  have  a  dual  classification  based  on  Reading  and  Arith- 
metic. Progress  in  these  subjects  is  often  very  unequal,  and  so 
it  would  generally  be  more  profitable  to  teacher  and  scholar  to 
adopt  the  double  basis.  Where  the  single  basis  is  adhered  to, 
Arithmetic  should  be  the  deciding  test.  Inequalities  in  other  sub- 
jects lend  themselves  more  readily  to  class  teaching  than  in 
Arithmetic,  because  greater  mental  demands  are  made  by  it.  The 
industrious  but  dull  pupil  always  labours  with  it ;  the  careless  one 
is  always  in  trouble  with  it :  whilst  the  inattentive  fails  at  it 
because  it  is  synthetically  progressive. 

II.  Bad  Classification.— There  are  certain  evils  associated 
with  bad  classification,  so  called  ;  but  the  term  is  almost  a  con- 
tradiction, for  classification  is  grouping  according  to  real  resem- 
blances, and  the  real  ones  in  school  are  ability  and  attainments. 
Some  of  the  most  obvious  evils  are  as  follow  : — 

1.  There  is  a  waste  of  time,  for  the  pupils  are  not  placed  where  they  will 
obtain  the  greatest  profit. 

2.  The  sympathy  and  respect  of  the  class  air  lessened,  hence  the  teacher  is 
robbed  of  his  legitimate  means  of  evoking  the  intelligence  and  activity  of  his 
pupils. 


CLASSIFICATION.  39 

3.  It  prevents  the  children  having  constant  and  suitable  employment. 

4.  /t  injures  discipline  for  the  reasons  already  given. 

5.  It  produces  dissatisfaction  among  the  parents,  and  injures  the  reputation 
of  the  school. 

6.  It  may  cause  pecuniary  loss  to  the  school,  both  directly  and  indirectly. 

7.  It  advertises  the  incapacity  of  the  teacher. 

III.  Infant  Schools  and  Classification. — The  Infant  School 
contemplates  in  the  length,  variety,  and  character  of  its  lessons  the 
training  of  scholars  whose  delicate  frames  require  very  careful 
treatment.  It  is  essential,  then,  that  the  length  of  the  lesson 
should  not  in  any  case  exceed  thirty  minutes,  and  should  be  con- 
fined in  most  cases  to  twenty  minutes  ;  and  that  the  lessons  should 
be  varied  in  length  according  to  the  section  of  the  school,  so  that 
m  the  babies'  room  the  actual  work  of  the  lesson  should  not  be 
more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

Each  lesson  should  also  be  followed  by  intervals  of  rest  and 
song;  the  subjects  of  the"  lessons  should  be  varied,  beginning  in  the 
lowest  section  with  familiar  objects  and  animals,  and  interspersed 
with  songs  and  stories  appropriate  to  the  lesson  ;  the  spontaneous 
and  co-operative  activity  of  the  scholars  should  form  the  object 
and  animate  the  spirit  of  each  lesson. 

Children  will  be  classified  according  to  ability,  and  not  rigidly 
according  to  age.  As  a  rule,  the  right  classification  of  the  chil- 
dren in  an  infant  school  will  be  found  to  correspond  nearly  with 
their  ages.  The  best  basis  is  Reading,  because,  as  a  rule,  this 
will  be  found  to  agree  broadly  with  age  classification. 

Age  classification  is  unnatural,  and  should  only  be  followed  so 
far  as  equal  attainments  are  coincident  with  the  average  equal 
age.  Backward  children  admitted  during  the  year,  however, 
should  not  be  allowed  to  drift  into  the  baby  class.  The  discipline, 
association,  and  instruction  of  this  class  would  be  most  unsuitable 
for  elder  children.  They  should  form  a  special  class,  or  otherwise 
receive  special  treatment  until  they  are  fit  to  be  drafted  into  one 
or  other  of  the  existing  classes. 

It  will  now  be  observed  by  the  student  that  the  single  basis  of 
classification  in  an  upper  department  should  be  Arithmetic,  and 
in  an  infant  school  Reading. 

rv.  Sub-division  of  Classes  in  Infant  Schools. — Where  pos- 
sible, sub-di\  ision  should  be  followed  in  the  following  lessons  : — 

1.  Needlework. — Little  fingers  are  not  likely  to  thread  and  use  a  needle 
properly,  or  with  profit,  without  much  supervision  and  showing.  Individual 
assistance   will  be  largely  required,  and  this  will  be  impossible  in  large  classes. 

2.  Writing. — In  the  early  lessons,  it  is  very  important  that  the  position  of 


40  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

the  child  and  the  manner  of  holding  the  pen  or  pencil  should  be  well  watched. 
Habits  are  being  formed  which  will  be  physical  evils  if  not  closely  watched  and 
corrected.     A  smaller  class  is  absolutely  essential  for  this. 

3.  Reading. — The  best  practice  in  reading  is  individual  practice.  This  is 
impossible  in  a  large  class.  For  the  formation  of  a  good  enunciation,  a  distinct 
and  clear  articulation,  the  teacher  must  give  the  child  much  individual  atten- 
tion. 

i.  Drawing  requires  much  assistance,  and  consequently  a  small  class  is 
essential.  If  the  proper  and  necessary  assistance  is  not  forthcoming  in  such 
subjects,  the  child  may  form  a  dislike  for  it — a  very  undesirable  result. 

V.  Shapes  of  Classes. — The  shapes  of  the  various  classes 
depend  on  : — 

1.  The  number  of  children  in  the  class. 

2.  The  amount  of  space  available. 

3.  The  furniture  and  its  arrangements. 

4.  The  amount  and  nature  of  the  staff. 

A.  Beading. 

1.  In  Desks.     Children  can  sit  or  stand  in  their  desks.     This  is  not  a  good 

arrangement,  even  if  the  floor  be  stepped  ;  for,  if  sitting,  the  pupils 
lose  the  chance  of  a  necessary  change  of  position,  and  they  are  apt  to 
become  indolent  and  inattentive.  If  standing,  there  is  the  tendency  to 
lounge  against  the  desks,  and  to  produce  a  slovenly  and  disorderly  ap- 
pearance in  the  class. 

2.  Dra/is.     These  should  be  formed  out  of  the  desks. 

{a)  Semicircular  Drafts.  This  method  is  preferable  to  the  desk  method, 
as  it  secures  the  desired  change  of  position,  brings  the  pupils  more 
directly  under  the  observation  and  control  of  the  teacher,  and  offers 
less  opportunity  for  the  formation  of  bad  habits. 

{b)  Pa7-allel  Dj-afts.  The  smaller  children  should  be  in  the  front  row  and 
the  taller  boys  behind.  The  teacher  will  then  be  able  to  stand  in  front 
of  the  class,  and  have  it  completely  within  the  range  of  his  eye. 

B.  Arithmetic. 

The  children  can  be  arranged  as  in  reading,  but  only  in  drafts  when  working 
on  the  slate,  on  the  B.B. ,  or  from  dictation.  Usually  this  lesson  will 
be  given  in  the  desks.  If  space  permits  the  wide  placing  of  the  pupils, 
this  arrangement  is  very  satisfactory.  But  space  rarely  does  permit. 
The  class  can  then  be  examined,  or  worked  in  two  sections.  It  can  be 
taught  in  one.  The  system  of  alternate  boys  working  different  examples 
tends  to  check  copying,  and  to  promote  honesty,  power,  and  indepen- 
dence. These  advantages  perhaps  more  than  counterbalance  the  extra 
expenditure  of  time  involved. 

C.  Geography. 

Here  the  children  can  either  be  arranged  in  desks  or  on  a  gallery,  if  the 
school  possesses  one.  The  latter  is  the  better  arrangement,  if  the  class 
be  a  junior  one,  and  is  working  from  the  map.  If  an  upper  class  and 
atlases  are  being  used,  the  desks  arc  the  better. . 

The  position  of  the  teacher  is  important. 

Reading.  He  should  be  in  front  of  the  class  and  to  tlic  centre.  He  should 
stand  back  sufficiently  to  bring  the  front  rows  under  his  observation. 

Geography.  If  pointing  to  the  map,  he  should  be  to  the  right,  where  his 
map  should  be  placed.  If  the  map  be  placed  in  front,  he  must  either 
point  inaccurately,  or  leave  his  class  without  supervision  for  short 
periods  ;  which,  however,  often  prove  long  enough  to  encourage  in- 
attention and  disorder.  If  atlases  are  being  used,  he  should  be  in 
front. 


CLASSIFICATION.  41 

Arithmetic.  Same  position  as  for  geography.  The  B.  B,  should  be  to  the 
right,  so  that  the  teacher  can  work  and  still  keep  the  class  somewhat 
under  supervision.  When  the  B.B.  is  in  front,  he  quite  turns  his  back 
upon  the  class,  and  the  class  often  shows  that  it  is  aware  of  the  fact. 
If  the  boys  are  working  examples,  he  should  stand  in  front,  and  care- 
fully watch  to  check  any  idleness  or  copying. 

VT.  Collective  Iiessons. — It  is  often  desirable  and  convenient 
to  group  classes  for  some  lessons,  as  it  tends  to  economy  in  teach- 
ing power,  and  sets  free  one  or  more  teachers  for  correction,  pre- 
paration, or  clerical  work.  In  an  infant  school  this  grouping  can 
be  well  done  on  a  gallery.  In  an  upper  department,  it  might  be 
done  in  the  central  hall,  or  in  one  of  the  larger  rooms.  There  are 
certain  subjects  which  lend  themselves  easily  to  the  collective 
arrangement. 

1.  Singing. — Here  sympathy  of  numbers  will  aid  the  physical  and  artistic 
training  given  by  the  teaching  of  this  subject.  Melodies  and  simple  part  songs, 
rounds  and  elementary  sol-fa  lessons  can  be  better  taught  to  a  division  than  to 
a  class,  for  such  grouping  gives  confidence  to  the  timid  and  shy. 

2.  Recitation. — Repetition  and  explanation,  with  some  pattern  work,  is  the 
programme  here,  and  such  instruction  can  be  given  to  two  classes  as  well  as  to 
one. 

3.  Scripture  Lessons. — The  moral  truths  of  Scripture  are  generally  pre- 
sented in  some  biblical  story,  which  can  be  given  in  a  manner  quite  within  the 
grasp  of  several  classes,  without  forfeiting  the  natural  attractions  of  a  story  to 
children. 

4.  Object  Lessons. — Common  information  lessons  can  be  given  to  many 
pupils  at  the  same  time,  especiall}'  if  the  lesson  is  enlivened  by  a  few  sketches, 
diagrams,  pictures,  or  experiments. 

5.  Musical  Drill. — The  size  of  the  division  will  be  limited  by  space  some- 
times, but  a  certain  amount  of  grouping  for  small  schools  is  possible. 

8.  Ordinary  Drill.- -After  some  preliminary  lessons  have  been  given,  chil- 
dren may  be  grouped  for  military  or  Swedish  drill.  The  added  numbers  gene- 
rally bring  added  interest  and  added  pleasure.  This  will  apply  only  to  small 
classes. 

7.  Kindergarten. — Some  of  the  lessons  admit  of  grouping  (see  chapter  on 
"  Kindergarten  "). 

8.  Class  Subjects. — 1  heir  very  name  implies  the  possibility  of  grouping. 
Grammar,  geography,  history,  elementary  science,  domestic  economy,  may  all 
be  grouped  for  instruction. 

9.  Elementary  Subjects.-  -Mental  arithmetic,  and,  in  some  cases,  writing, 
also  lend  themselves  to  this  arrangement. 

A  change  of  place  and  attitude  is  an  absolute  physical  neces- 
sity. It  affords  a  welcome  relief  to  the  sitting  in  desks,  releasing 
one  set  of  muscles,  and  bringing  into  play  another  set.  It  is  a 
check  to  twisted  shoulders,  curvature  of  the  spine,  and  injury  to 
the  eyesight,  all  of  which  may  be  induced  by  careless  and  con- 
tinuous service  in  the  desks.  For  Singing  it  offers  special  physical 
advantages,  a  standing  position  giving  better  play  to  the  lungs. 

VH.  Promotion.- -Promotion  should  be  systematic  and  regu- 
lar.    Quarterly  or  half-yearly  examinations  should  be  held,  and 


42  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

the  sharpest  or  best  prepared  drafted  into  higher  classes.     Other- 
wise, bad  effects  are  produced  on  the  scholars, 

T.  They  find  time  for  mischief,  for  necessarily  they  must  be  idle  part  of 
their  time,  or  working  fruitlessly. 

2.  They  weary  of  their  work,  which  becomes  a  sort  of  mental  treadmill — 

ever  moving,  never  advancing. 

3.  They  frequently  form  a  dislike  for  school  altogether,  and  become  more  or 

less  irregular. 

4.  They  interfere  with  their  slower  comrades. 

5.  They  often  reti'ograde  themselves,  for  monotony  stunts. 

6.  Their  non-promotion  is  an  injustice  to  all  concerned  ;  to  the  child,  who 

has  a  right  to  as  much,  and  to  the  best,  instruction  the  school  can 
give  ;  to  the  parents,  and  to  the  country,  who  share  that  right. 

7.  School  life  is  short,  Xh&c^ior^  progi-ess  should  be  as  fast  as  Nature  will 

permit. 

HOMS:  I.ESSONS. 

I.  Subjects  for  Home  Iiessons. — The  most  appropriate  sub- 
jects are  those  which  involve  either: — 

1.  Reproduction  of  some  portion  of  the  day's  work,  as  in  geography,  arith- 
metic, grammar,  or  composition  ;  or 

2.  Preparation  for  the  next  day's  work,  like  spelling,  map  drawing,  memory 
work  (recitation,  geographical  facts,  chronology  in  history,  rules,  tables,  ex- 
ceptions in  grammar,  etc.), 

II.  Revision  of  Home  Lessons. — The  time  and  methods  of 
revision  will  depend  on  the  methods  of  instruction  and  the  sub- 
jects taught ;  and,  probably,  in  some  schools,  upon  the  staff 
also,  but  it  is  assumed  that  all  schools  are  staffed  properly  in  these 
suggestions. 

Spelling  would  be  part  of  the  dictation  lesson. 

Arithmetic  can  be  marked  by  monitors  or  young  teachers  during  some 
collective  lesson.  The  chief  errors  can  then  be  explained  and  corrected 
on  the  B.  B. 

Grammar.  Parsing  and  analysis  can  be  corrected  as  in  arithmetic,  or,  with 
a  good  teacher,  in  the  grammar  lesson  itself.  Let  boys  change  books, 
the  method  or  order  of  change  being  varied  from  time  to  time.  The 
teacher  will  parse  and  analyse  the  piece,  the  boys  writing  in  the  cor- 
rections in  black  lead,  coloured  ink,  or  pencil.  The  number  of  errors 
should  then  be  neatly  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  exercise,  and  the 
exercise  should  then  be  initialed  by  the  boy  who  corrects  it.  This 
checks  all  spite,  carelessness,  or  collusion  between  boys;  for  the  in- 
accurately or  dishonestly  corrected  exercise  can  always  be  traced. 
This  method  also  acts  as  a  good  disciplinary  training  to  the  boys,  and 
helps  to  fix  their  work.  It  insures  a  maximum  of  attention,  but  it 
should  only  be  used  with  the  elder  scholars.  Memory  work  can  be 
tested  in  the  grammar  lesson  itself. 

Geography  can  be  tested  during  the  geography  lesson  ;  maps  by  monitors 
or  pupil  teachers  during  the  collective  lessons.  The  prevailing  errors 
should  then  be  dealt  with  on  the  B.  B.  If  the  geography  is  an  abstract, 
it  nmst  be  corrected  out  of  school  hours,  or  as  in  grammar. 

Composition  nuist  l)e  marked  out  of  school  hours,  or  by  young  teachers 
during  collective  lessons.  Correct  the  chief  errors  on  the  B.  B. ,  or,  if 
composition  lessons  figure  on  the  time  table,  the  home  lessons  could 
be  marked  while  the  class  is  at  composition. 

Scripture  should  be  tested  in  the  Scripture  lesson,  or  marked  out  of  school 
hours. 


CLASSIFICATION.  43 

Arguments  for  and  against  Home  Iiessons. 
For. 

1.  They  cultivate  self-reliance  and  industry. 

2.  If  honestly  done  they  are  a  true  index  of  the  child's  own  powers. 

3.  They  make  a  favourable  impression  on  some  parents. 

4.  They  S2ipplenient  andyfjr  the  learning  of  the  child. 

5.  They  set  the  master  at  liberty  for  higher  work. 

6.  To  a  certain  extent  they  keep  children  from  the  bad  influences  of  the 

street. 

7.  Under  certain  conditions  the  Education  Department  recommends  them. 

Their  use  should  be  "to  illustrate  and  to  fix  in  the  memory  lessons 
which  have  already  been  explained  in  school,  rather  than  to  break  new 
ground  or  to  call  for  a  new  mental  effort.  This  purpose  is  served  by 
lessons  of  a  simple  and  definite  character — a  sum,  a  short  poetical 
extract,  a  list  of  names  or  dates,  a  letter,  an  outline  map,  a  parsing 
exercise,  such  as  may  be  readily  prepared  in  half  an  hour,  and  may 
admit  of  very  easy  testing  and  correction  on  the  following  day.  When 
these  conditions  are  fulfilled,  the  home  task  is  found  to  have  a  very 
valuable  effect,  not  only  in  helping  the  progress  of  the  scholar  and  in 
encouraging  the  habit  of  application,  but  also  awakening  on  the  part 
of  the  parents  an  interest  in  the  school  work."  (Revised  instructions 
to  H.M.  Inspectors). 

Against. 

1.  The  school  day  is  already  too  long  for  young  children,  some  of  our  best 

authorities  say. 

2.  They  conduce  to  over-pressure,  and  may  be  physically  injurious. 

3.  They  frequently  c^use  friction  between  parent  and  children  and  teacher. 

4.  Public  opinion  is  in  part  opposed  to  them. 

5.  They  may  become  injurious  both  mentally  and  morally  by  the  formation 

of  bad  habits  through  want  of  proper  supervision. 

6.  There  is  little  or  no  accotmnodation  in  many  of  the  homes  for  the  doing 

of  them. 

7.  Change  of  thought  is  necessary  for  the  healthy  development  of  brain 

power.     A  child  should  not  take  the  school  home  with  him. 

HINDRANCES  TO  PROGRESS. — These  may  have  a  twofold 
origin  :  — 

1.  From  the  Children. — Here  again  the  causes  may  be  various. 

{a)  Stupidity.     See  notes  on  stupidity. 

{b)  Poor  Living.  This  may  be  partial  only,  local,  or  intermittent.  But  it 
is  a  serious  hindrance.  The  difficulty  is  now  grappled  with  by  the 
institution  of  large  agencies  for  cheap  and  free  dinners.  Thousands 
of  children  are  now  fed  at  times  in  this  way.  This  treatment  has 
proved  its  own  value  both  physically,  morally,  and  mentally. 

{c)  Clothing.  Children  are  insufficiently  clad,  and  consequently  physically 
uncomfortable,  perhaps  suffering.  Appeal  for  old  clothes  in  the  local 
press  or  in  any  direction  where  your  appeal  may  be  successful. 

[d)  Irregularity.  This  is  the  greatest  hindrance  to  progress  that  teachers 
have  to  grapple  with.  It  arises  from  such  a  multiplicity  of  causes 
that  to  attempt  a  detailed  account  of  its  treatnient  is  impossible  here. 
The  teacher's  chief  function  in  this  matter  is  to  make  his  school  as 
attractive  as  possible,  to  show  a  practical  interest  in  his  pupils  by  the 
formation  of  and  participation  in  cricket,  swimming,  and  football 
clubs;  to  report  on  all  absences  promptly;  to  develop  the  sense  of 
duty  in  his  pupils  as  far  as  he  is  able ;  and  then  to  leave  the  rest  to 
the  parents  and  the  visitors. 


44  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

2.  Teacher. 

{a)  Bad  Classification.      This  is  a  fault  of  the  teacher's.     It  can  only  be 
removed  by  thought  and  the  study  of  good  models. 

[b)  Bad  Methods  of  Teaching.     Teacher  must  read  and  study,  and  then 

practise  better  methods  of  instruction. 

[c)  Harsh  Discipline.     Harshness  defeats  its  own  ends.     It  may  produce 

quietness,  but  this  deceives  no  expert.  The  vitality  of  the  children  is 
lowered,  and  therefore  the  capacity  for  work  is  diminished.  Besides, 
there  are  strong  emotional  disturbances  set  up  which  are  very  hostile. 
See  under  the  head  of  "  Harshness  "  in  the  chapter  on  "  Discipline  ". 

TIMS  TABLES. 

I.  Revised  Instructions  and  Time  Tables. — Every  time  table 
has  to  be  approved  on  behalf  of  the  Education  Department  by 
H.M.I.,  who  thereby  certifies  that  it  fulfils  the  requirements  of 
Section  7  of  the  Elementary  Education  Act  of  1870.  He  will 
expect  the  time  table  to  show  that  a  due  proportion  of  time  is 
assigned  in  Infant  Schools  to  manual  exercises  and  recreative 
employments,  and  in  other  schools  to  each  of  the  subjects  of 
instruction,  including  any  specific  subject  which  the  school  pro- 
fesses to  teach.  Nothing  should  he  attempted  which,  having  regard 
to  the  proper  classification  of  the  scholars,  and  to  the  number  and  quali- 
fications of  the  teachers,  cannot  he  efficiently  taught  in  the  ordinary 
school  hours.  Scholars  are  not  to  be  improperly  detained  beyond 
the  prescribed  time.  The  time  table  is  also  to  be  placed  in  a  con- 
spicuous position  in  the  schoolroom,  and  it  must  be  followed 
throughout  the  school  year. 

II.  General  Directions.  —The  writing  of  a  time  table  is  very 
difficult,  because  of  the  number  of  considerations  to  be  studied. 
No  set  or  stereotyped  time  table  is  possible,  because  of  the  vary- 
ing conditions  of  the  different  schools.  All  that  can  advisably  be 
attempted  is  the  laying  down  of  the  chief  principles  and  rules  to 
be  observed  in  their  formation. 

1.  Building. — Consider  the  number  and  size  of  the  rooms  in  your  depart- 
ment, and  the  quantity  and  kind  of  furniture.  A  time  table  can  be  more  easily 
made  for  a  school  containing  several  class  rooms  than  for  one  without  them. 
The  supply  of  desks,  galleries,  etc. ,  will  determine  the  nature  and  order  of  the 
lessons. 

2.  Staff. — The  best  disposal  of  a  staff  is  important.  Each  teacher  must  be 
])laced  where  he  can  teach  to  the  greatest  profit.  Manifestly  a  time  table  for  a 
school  with  assistant  teachei's  will  be  different  to  one  with  pupil  teachers  or 
monitors. 

3.  Class  of  School. — Whether  boys',  girls',  infants',  or  mixed  ;  whether  full 
time  or  half  time  ;  whether  a  poor  class  school  or  one  placed  in  a  good  neigh- 
bourhood ;  whether  small  or  large;  whether  backward  or  well  taught. 

i.  Locality. — A  town  school  will  require  a  different  time  table  to  a  country 
school  ;  a  school  in  a  manufacturing  district,  to  one  in  a  rural,  marine,  or  mining 
district. 


CLASSIFICATION.  45 

5.  Time. — The  number  of  hours  in  the  school  week  ;  the  length  of  school 
life  ;  the  amount  of  time  to  be  given  to  each  subject ;  the  length  of  each  lesson 
— all  these  have  to  be  considered  and  regulated.  No  lesson  should  be  more 
than  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  and  the  length  of  lesson  should  be  graded  to 
suit  the  age  and  capacity  of  the  children.  More  time  will  be  required  for  the 
Elementary  Subjecta  than  for  the  Class,  and  more  for  the  Class  than  for  the 
Specific  Subjects. 

6.  Laws  of  the  Mind.— The  lessons  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  afford  the 
necessary  mental  rests.  The  lesson  of  much  mental  effort  must  be  followed  by 
a  mechanical  lesson  ;  e.g.,  writing  might  follow  grammar,  or  vice  versa.  Then 
the  most  exhausting  subjects  should  come  in  the  morning,  and  they  should  be 
the  first  lessons. 

7.  Classification. — The  basis  of  classification  adopted  in  the  school  must 
b(»  considered.  Most  primary  schools  are  classified  by  the  standards  ;  but  where 
this  is  not  done,  the  school  should  be  classed  on  a  basis  of  arithmetic  or  reading. 
The  number  of  classes  must  fall  within  the  limits  of  the  staff,  and  the  accom- 
modation of  the  rooms. 

8.  Official  Rules. — The  Department  lays  down  certain  rules  and  limitations 
with  respect  to  time  tables,  and  these  must  be  considered.  School  Boards 
sometimes  order  that  so  much  time  per  week  shall  be  given  to  certain  subjects 
[e.g.,  religious  knowledge,  singing,  drawing,  manual  instruction,  etc.).  Under 
some  School  Boards  the  nature  of  the  time  table  is  much  influenced  in  this  way. 

9.  Recreation. — The  time  table  should  show  about  ten  minutes  each  atten- 
dance for  play.  In  the  upper  department,  military,  musical,  or  Swedish  drill 
will  be  taken,  and  this  must  appear  in  the  time  table. 

10.  Registration,  etc. — The  time  devoted  to  this  should  always  be  shown. 
If  the  registers  are  marked  twice  each  attendance,  once  for  the  early  and  once 
for  the  late  pupils,  both  should  appear  on  the  time  table.  Assembly,  religious 
observances,  and  dismissal  should  also  be  shown. 

11.  Locomotion. — Physical  relief  must  be  arranged  for.  The  classes  will 
require  to  remove  from  the  desks  to  the  drafts,  or  to  the  gallery  or  class  room. 
This  must  be  so  arranged -as  to  cause  a  minimum  amount  of  noise  and  distur- 
bance. 

12.  Summaries. — Three  tables  or  summaries  should  appear  on  each  time 
table:  — 

(fl)  A  list  of  the  subjects  taught,  and  the  total  number  of  hours  given  to  each 

per  week. 
(6)  The  number  and  quality  of  the  staff,  i.e.,  head  teacher,  assistants,  and  pupil 

teachers, 
(c)  A  small  table  showing  when  the  model  and  criticism  lessons  are  given. 

HI.  Advantages  of  Time  Tables. 

1.  To  the  Children. — They  discipline  work  and  teach  the  value 
of  method  and  punctuality.  The  children  become  habituated  to 
obedience  to  rules  laid  down  by  others,  and  this  is  a  gain  for  the 
State.  The  steady  and  regular  habit  of  work  enforced  by  the  time 
table  is  forming  habits  which  will  beneficially  influence  their 
adult  life. 

2.  To  the  Teacher. — His  time  is  spent  to  the  best  advantage 
under  its  guidance.  The  mental  wear  and  tear  is  considerably 
less.  He  knows  his  work  for  each  hour,  and  soon  falls  into  a 
well-arranged  and  busy  routine,  which  is  a  means  to  his  happiness. 
The  children  have  their  faculties  worked  to  their  best  advantage, 
and  this  is  more  productive  both  to  teacher  and  those  taught. 


46 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


TV.  Distribution  of  Time. 

1.  In  Infant  Department. — This  will  depend  upon  the  class. 
Supposing  the  school  hours  to  be  twenty-five,  we  get  something 
like  the  following  : — 

1.  Registiation,  religious  observances,  religious  instruction,  4  J  hours. 

2.  Recreation,  2^  hours. 

3.  Arithmetic,  3I  hours. 

4.  Reading,  3^  hours. 

5.  Writing,  3  hours. 

6.  Needlework,  2  hours  50  minutes. 

7.  Object  Lessons,  i  hour  40  minutes. 

8.  Singing,  i  hour. 

9.  Spelling,  J  hour. 

10.  Kindergarten,  i  hour. 

11.  Drill,  50  minutes. 

12.  Recitation,  30  minutes. 

This  distribution  of  time  would  be  approximate  only  in  the  babies' 
class,  as  these  little  ones  would  have  a  Kindergarten  lesson  each 
day,  as  well  as  an  extra  lesson  in  Singing  and  Recitation  on 
Needlework  days.  The  Arithmetic  would  be  taken  directly  after 
Religious  Instruction,  as  the  children  are  then  most  capable  of 
mental  effort.  The  object  lesson  would  therefore  be  given  each 
morning  for  the  same  reason.  Singing,  Needlework,  Recitation, 
and  Kindergarten  are  the  most  suitable  for  the  afternoon.  The 
fifty  minutes  for  drill  allows  five  minutes  sharp  exercise  each 
morning.  This  exercise  immediately  preceding  the  object  lesson, 
and  for  a  lesson  of  twenty-five  minutes'  duration  once  a  week. 

But,  speaking  generally,  the  time  will  vary  with  the  class  and 
subject.  The  following  items  were  copied  from  one  of  the  very 
best  infant  schools  in  London,  and  they  bear  out  the  necessity  for 
variation : — 


Subject. 


Kindergarten 
Drawing     - 
Object  Lessons 
Singing 


Classes. 


50' 

55' 

55' 

55' 

55' 

1-20' 

3  hrs. 

ihr. 

I  hr. 

ihr. 

ihr. 

Jhr. 

... 

... 

ihr. 

ihr. 

ihr. 

Ihr. 

1-50' 

1-50' 

3-25' 

55' 

Ihr. 

1-25' 

1-25' 

1-25' 

1-55' 

2^  hrs. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

Only  a  few  subjects  are  quoted,  but  they  are  sufficient  to  show  the  variation  of 
time  required  and  practised. 

2.  In  Upper  Department. — Here  the  distribution  of  time  will 
vary  so  often  that  it  is  almost  useless  to  suggest  any  scheme  for 


CLASSIFICATION.  47 

imitation.  The  district  of  the  school,  the  quality  of  the  children, 
the  teaching  staff,  the  building,  the  apparatus,  etc.,  are  all  varying 
factors,  giving  varying  products.  The  young  teacher  is  advised  to 
make  a  copy  of  the  distribution  of  the  time  as  shown  on  the  school 
time  table,  and  to  insert  it  for  reference  and  illustration  in  his 
note  book  or  method  book. 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Notes  of  lesson  on  Home  Lessons. 

2. — Give  some  of  the  subjects  appropriate  for  home  lessons,  and  give  a  sketch  of  a 
week's  home  lessons  for  scholars  in  the  Fourth  Standard. 

3. — Show  that  for  some  lessons  infant  classes  should  be  smaller  in  number  than 
classes  composed  of  older  children,  and  that  for  other  lessons  one  or  more  classes  may 
be  grouped. 

4.— What  bad  habits  are  produced  by  careless  correction  of  exercises  and  by  want  of 
attention  to  home  lessons  ? 

5. — Name  some  suitable  subjects  for  home  lessons,  and  state  the  most  suitable 
times  and  methods  for  their  revision.  What  objections  are  sometimes  raised  to  home 
lessons  ? 

6. — State  fully  the  bad  effects  that  are  produced  by  retaining  a  clever  child  in  one 
class  for  a  year  without  due  promotion.     How  often  should  promotion  be  made  ? 

7. — In  what  different  shapes  may  classes  be  arranged  for  Reading,  Arithmetic,  and 
Geography  lessons  ?  State  which  shape  you  consider  best  for  each  purpose,  and  why 
you  would  employ  that  arrangement.  What  should  be  the  position  of  the  teacher  in 
regard  to  his  class  ? 

8. — What  bad  effects  are  produced  by  imperfect  classification,  both  upon  the  more 
and  less  advanced  members  of  a  class  ? 

9. — What  were  the  chief  hindrances  in  the  way  of  the  progress  of  the  children  you 
used  to  teach,  and  how  did  you  attempt  to  remove  them  ? 

10. — Out  of  twenty-five  hours  a  week  in  an  infant  school,  or  out  of  thirty  hours  in  a 
school  of  older  children,  what  time  should  be  devoted  to  each  employment  or  subject  of 
instruction  ?     Give  your  reasons. 

II. — What  is  the  best  classification  of  an  infant  school  ?  What  exercises  in  number 
would  be  suitable  to  each  class  ? 

12. — On  receiving  new  scholars  in  the  school,  what  is  the  best  way  of  deciding  in 
which  class  to  place  them  ?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 


48 


CHAPTER  IV. 

NOTES  OF  LESSONS. 

Young  teachers  are  generally  plunged  into  all  the  difficulties  of 
lesson  sketches  without  training  or  graduation.  An  attempt  is 
here  made  to  recognise  their  difficulties,  and  to  meet  them  with 
systematic  preparation.  For  this  purpose  the  work  is  divided  into 
so  many  steps,  each  of  which  should  be  thoroughly  mastered 
before  the  next  is  attempted. 

I.  First  Step. — The  following  facts  should  be  thoroughly 
grasped  and  learned  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  write  notes  of 
lessons :  — 

1.  Class. — The  attainments  of  children  differ  according  to 
their  class,  and  so  does  their  mental  poWer  very  often  ;  hence, 
matter,  method,  and  language  will  often  require  different  treat- 
ment for  different  classes.  The  first  step  will  be  to  decide  to  which 
class  the  lesson  is  to  be  given.  Then  the  average  power  and 
attainments  of  such  class  should  be  gauged,  and  the  notes  drawn 
up  accordingly. 

2.  Time. — Next  decide  the  length  of  the  lesson,  as  the  amount 
to  be  taught  and  the  methods  to  be  adopted  must  depend  on  the 
time  allowed.  Do  not  attempt  too  much,  for  little  and  well  is 
better  than  an  indigestible  mass.  The  time  should  vary  with  the 
class,  twenty  to  forty-five  minutes  being  the  extremes.  Remember 
the  power  of  sustaining  attention  is  of  slow  growth,  and  is  very 
limited  in  young  children.  A  lesson  which  produces  early  or 
undue  weariness  is  a  useless  and  even  injurious  one. 

3.  Aim. — The  aim  of  the  lesson  should  next  be  considered, 
and  the  Special  Aim  (if  any)  is  the  one  referred  to.  Every  lesson 
has  a  General  Aim,  which  is  always  obvious ;  e.g.,  to  teach  Reading 
in  a  reading  lesson,  to  learn  the  structure  and  functions  of  a  lan- 
guage in  a  grammar  lesson  ;  and  so  on.  This  can  be  disregarded. 
But  the  Special  Aim  has  a  further  object.  In  a  lesson  on  an 
animal  the  teacher  may  try  to  show  adaptability  to  structure ;  in 


NOTES  ON  LESSONS. 


49 


a  Scripture  lesson,  to  force  home  some  moral  truth ;  in  an  object 
lesson,  to  illustrate  some  natural  law.  When  this  special  aim  is 
stated,  the  teacher  must  be  careful  to  focus  all  his  matter  and 
method  upon  it.  It  is  the  common  goal  of  all  the  steps  taken  in 
the  lesson.  Every  point  must  be  worked  out  under  its  influence, 
and  the  entire  lesson  must  receive  its  shape  and  bulk  from  it. 
Early  attempts  at  writing  notes  of  lessons  should,  as  a  rule,  be 
limited  to  the  general  aim,  and  to  elementary  subjects  or  common 
objects. 

4.  Introduction. — Too  much  time  must  not  be  spent  in  intro- 
ducing the  lesson.  Often  it  will  be  sufficient  to  simply  announce 
the  subject,  and  then  to  proceed  with  it  at  once.  If  the  lesson  is 
one  of  a  series  on  the  same  class  of  subjects,  a  little  judicious 
recapitulation  of  the  previous  one  will  serve  to  connect  the  two, 
and  to  arouse  some  interest.  Elaborate  introductions  worked  out 
at  the  expense  of  the  time  of  the  lesson  itself,  and  with  the  laud- 
able desire  of  arousing  interest,  often  defeat  their  own  ends.  In- 
terest will  always  be  the  product  of  the  lesson  itself,  if  it  is  properly 
handled.  The  place  of  the  introduction  is  important.  Three 
common  errors  are  prevalent  with  respect  to  its  position  : — 

{a)  It  is  placed  adove  the  notes  with  the  class,  time,  aim,  and  apparatus. 

(d)  It  is  placed  in  the  matter  colunm. 

\c)  It  is  written  across  both  matter  and  method  columns. 

All  these  positions  are  objectionable,  for  the  introduction  is 
essentially  a  part  of  the  method  of  the  lesson,  and  nothing  else. 
Consequently,  it  should  be  placed  in  the  method  column,  e.g. :  — 


Matter. 


I.  Introduction.    (As  a  rule  merely  write 
the  word  here.) 


Method. 


Show  your  method  of  introduction  here. 


If  the  lesson  should  be  one  of  a  series,  the  introduction  has 
certain  objects  at  which  it  aims,  such  as  : — 

(a)  To  recall  the  most  important  facts  and  truths  of  the  last  lesson. 

(d)  To  arouse  the  mental  activity  of  the  class  by  awakening  interest. 

ic)  To  awaken  their  sympathy,  and 

(d)  To  enlist  their  co-operation  by  maintaining  the  continuity  of  the  lessons. 

Methods  of  Introduction. — These  will  vary  with  the  subjects 
of  the  lessons. 

(a)  Reading.— Say  a  few  words  about  the  subject  matter  of  the  lesson,  or 
about  the  author,  and  set  the  meaning  of  the  chapter  clearly  before  them. 

4 


50  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

(d)  Writing. — Pick  out  the  common  errors  of  the  previous  lesson  ;  place 
them  on  the  B.  B.  ;  in  each  case  show  wherein  the  error  lies  ;  give  specimens  of 
correct  writing,  and  contrast  the  two. 

[c)  Arithmetic. — Introduce  by  mental  arithmetic,  leading  up  to  and  em- 
bodying the  principle  or  rule  to  be  taught. 

(d)  Grammar. — Place  sentences  on  the  B.B. ,  embodying  the  results  of  the 
last  lesson,  and  suggestions  for  the  present  lesson. 

{e)  History. — Question  on  the  previous  lesson.  Bring  out  the  points  that 
bear  upon  or  lead  to  the  proposed  lesson. 

(/)  Geograpliy. — The  method  will  vary  here.  Objects  may  have  to  be 
shown,  maps  or  diagrams  used,  models  exhibited  ;  or  questioning  only  may  be 
required.     The  subject  of  the  lesson  must  decide  in  each  case. 

(^)  Object  Lessons. — Show  the  object  itself,  if  possible  ;  if  not,  show  a  pic- 
ture of  it.  Ask  a  few  connecting  questions  with  the  previous  lesson  (if  one  of  a 
series),  and  begin  at  once. 

n.  Second  Step. — A  complete  copy  of  notes  of  lessons  on 
some  common  object  should  now  be  placed  before  the  pupil 
teacher,  and  he  should  be  asked  to  carefully  study  it.  A  lesson 
on  the  Sponge  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  object  lessons,  and 
that  lesson  will  be  found  suitable  for  such  a  purpose.  Certain 
characteristics  of  the  lesson  should  be  pointed  out,  and  the  young 
teacher  should  be  asked  to  distinguish  like  characteristics  in  other 
notes  of  lessons.  He  should  observe  that  in  the  matter  column 
notes  are  given,  and  not  descriptions ;  and  that  the  sequence  of 
teaching  is  observed  in  starting  with  the  known  and  proceeding  to 
the  unknown.  In  the  method  column  he  should  seek  to  recognise 
the  instrument  or  aid  used  by  the  teacher;  whether  it  is  observa- 
tion, interrogation,  illustration,  experiment,  or  description.  The 
lesson  referred  to  is  a  simple  one,  so  that  it  may  serve  as  a  type 
or  study  for  all  pupil  teachers,  irrespective  of  their  school  depart- 
ments. This  will  involve  some  knowledge  of  these  aids,  and  the 
student  is  recommended  to  read  them  through.  They  will  be 
found  in  the  chapter  on  class  teaching.  He  will  then  be  able  to 
perceive  that  such  lessons  are  largely  experimental,  and  at  a  later 
period  he  will  recognise  that  they  are,  like  this  one,  inductive  in 
their  method,  which  is  the  most  educative  form  of  teaching  for 
such  lessons, 

m.  Third  Step. 

1.  Matter. — This  will  be  met  with  under  different  names  in 
different  subjects.  Sometimes  it  is  called  Matter,  sometimes 
Information,  sometimes  Principles  and  Examples  (Grammar  and 
Arithmetic) ;  but  the  term  Matter  will  here  be  used  in  a  generic 
sense  as  including  all.  It  should  be  terse  and  to  the  point,  so  as 
readily  to  appeal  to  the  eye  ;  and  it  should  be  written  in  one 
column.      Young  beginners  often   find  it  difficult  to  distinguish 


NOTES  ON  LESSONS.  51 

matter  from  method,  and  some  teachers  recognise  this  difficulty 
by  throwing  matter  and  method  into  one  column.  In  fact,  matter 
and  method  often  seem  to  interlace  and  overlap.  Nevertheless,  it 
is  strongly  recommended  that  an  effort  be  made  to  keep  them 
apart.  Then  the  matter  must  be  brought  under  proper  Heads,  and 
in  separate  paragraphs  or  statements.  The  more  important  should 
be  distinguished  from  the  less  important  by  the  size  of  the  writing 
and  by  the  width  of  the  margin.  The  matter  should  always  be 
written  in  the  form  of  Notes,  and  not  small  essays  ;  in  fact,  it 
should  be  strongly  borne  in  mind  that  Notes  of  Lessons  are  to  be 
written,  and  not  Essays  of  Lessons.  This  rule  will  exclude  nearly 
all  questions  and  descriptions.  Such  important  matter  as  Rules 
of  Arithmetic,  Definitions  in  Grammar,  and  general  principles 
should  be  written  in  larger  type,  to  indicate  their  importance.  Nor 
should  the  lesson  be  overcrowded  with  information ;  for  the 
amount  does  not  depend  upon  how  much  can  be  told,  but  rather 
upon  how  much  can  be  worked  out  in  the  allotted  time.  Hence 
all  irrelevant  matter  should  be  excluded  ;  and  it  is  easier  to  do 
this  in  the  Notes  than  in  the  actual  teaching  itself.  Finally,  avoid 
egotism;  it  is  unnecessary  and  unpleasant.  "Now  I'm  going  to 
tell  you,"  and  such  personal  elements,  are  objectionable. 

2.  Matter  in  Order. — The  student  should  first  be  supplied  with 
the  matter  in  the  order  for  teaching.  By  practice  and  training  he 
will  soon  be  able  to  put  matter  into  the  requisite  order  for  himself; 
but  whilst  this  logical  faculty  for  arrangement  is  being  cultivated, 
the  teacher's  assistance  should  be  given  by  arranging  the  matter 
for  him.  The  matter  (in  order)  of  a  lesson  on  some  common 
object  having  been  given  by  the  teacher,  it  is  recommended  that 
the  pupil  write  notes  of  a  lesson  from  it.  The  lesson  should  then 
be  examined,  corrected,  and  criticised  by  the  teacher,  and  the 
corrected  lesson  kept  by  the  pupil  for  future  reference  and  use. 
The  matter  of  other  lessons  should  be  similarly  treated. 

rv.  Fourth  Step.  Matter  not  in  Order. — A  little  extra  work 
should  now  be  thrown  upon  the  pupil.  The  matter  is  still  found  for 
him,  but  it  is  not  arranged  in  the  necessary  form  for  a  lesson. 
He  should  now  attempt  to  make  this  arrangement  himself,  bring 
it  under  its  proper  heads,  and  then  complete  the  lesson,  with  help 
if  necessary.  Text  books  and  books  of  other  kinds  will  afford 
plenty  of  matter  in  a  form  suitable  for  this  purpose.  In  fact,  this 
is  generally  the  way  in  which  matter  is  presented  to  the  young 


52  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

teacher  for  notes  of  lessons;  and  after  passing  successfully  through 
the  previous  steps,  he  should  be  in  a  better  condition  to  deal  with 
this  stage  of  the  subject.  In  no  case  should  too  much  be  at- 
tempted. 

V.  Fifth  Step.  Heads  of  Ijessons. — The  student  will  now  be 
able  to  exercise  some  judgment  in  the  selection  of  matter.  He  has 
been  supplied  and  drilled  with  matter  in  order,  with  matter  not  in 
order,  and  with  masses  of  matter  to  select  from.  He  should  now  be 
drilled  in  writing  the  heads  of  lessons,  so  as  to  train  his  analytic 
powers  over  a  wider  range  of  subjects.  He  has  learnt  to  select  suit- 
able matter,  and  to  arrange  it  in  proper  order.  The  work  is  not 
new  to  him,  for  in  arranging  matter  in  order  he  has  practically 
arranged  it  under  heads  ;  but  the  power  needs  strengthening  and 
developing. 

Having  determined  what  he  will  teach,  and  how  much  of  it  he 
will  teach,  he  should  make  a  careful  analysis  of  the  subject  matter, 
and  arrange  it  in  divisions  and  sub-divisions.  The  logical  connec- 
tions must  be  maintained,  and  the  sequence  of  teaching  must  be 
observed.  This  sequence  is  based  on  great  principles,  simple  of 
comprehension  and  easy  of  application,  and  it  must  not  be 
violated.     It  embraces  the  following  principles  : — 

1.  From  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

2.  From  the  particular  to  the  general. 

3.  From  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 

4.  From  the  indefinite  to  the  definite. 

5.  From  the  empirical  to  the  rational  and  scientific. 

6.  From  the  outline  to  the  details. 

7.  From  the  physical  to  the  mental ;  and  generally, 

8.  From  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

The  last  principle  includes  several  of  the  former,  but  they  are 
stated  in  detail,  so  that  the  student  may  the  more  readily  recognise  them 
and  their  applications. 

There  must  not  be  too  many  heads,  otherwise  there  is  cross- 
division  and  confusion.  Then  they  must  be  marked  by  clear, 
distinct,  and  broad  lines.  The  power  which,  most  presumably, 
many  students  will  have  already  acquired  in  mapping  out  a  course 
of  thought  in  Composition  Exercises,  in  analysing  the  subject 
matter  of  their  History,  Descriptive  Geography,  Scripture,  etc., 
will  now  be  serviceable.  There  are  many  lessons  scattered 
through  this  book,  and  the  student  might  copy  their  "  Heads"  in 
turn,  and  try  to  write  lessons  from  them.  He  should  then  choose 
other  subjects,  and  write  heads  under  them.  These  should  be 
submitted  to  the  head  teacher  and  discussed,  the  necessary  cor- 


NOTES  ON  LESSONS.  53 

rections   being   made  in    each    case.      The    corrected    "Heads" 
should  then  be  preserved  for  subsequent  use. 

VT.  Sixth  Step.  B.B.  Sketches.— A  number  of  B.B.  sketches 
should  now  be  supplied  to  the  student,  and  these  he  should  be 
asked  to  expand  into  lessons.  They  are  not  necessarily  the  same 
as  the  heads  of  the  lessons ;  in  fact,  they  are  rarely  so.  No 
"  Notes"  are  complete  without  them,  i.e.,  if  the  notes  are  meant 
to  be  presented  in  a  complete  or  examination  form.  The  summary 
may  take  one  of  two  forms  : — 

1.  An  Analysis  of  the  chief  heads  and  sub-heads  of  the  matter  column. 

2.  A  Statement  of  the  chief  facts  of  the  lesson.  Anything  that  is  striking  or 
important  should  be  brought  out  and  placed  at  the  end  of  the  lesson,  and 
during  the  actual  teaching  it  should  find  its  way  on  to  the  B.  B.  This  form  is 
the  better  one  of  the  two,  and  it  is  what  is  generally  meant  by  B.  B.  summary 
or  sketch. 

The  B.B.  sketch  is  also  a  good  indication  of  the  teacher's 
power  of  using  the  B.B.  A  few  sketches  are  now  given,  and  the 
student  is  recommended  to  expand  them  into  complete  lessons, 
and  to  get  them  criticised  by  the  head  teacher. 

1.  Cork,    (a)  Properties  and  Uses. 

(i)  It  is  light ;  hence  used  for  making  boats,  cork  jackets,  floats,  etc. 

(2)  Compressible  ;  hence  used  for  bottle  corks  and  bungs, 

(3)  Elastic ;  it  is  also  used  for  socks  in  boots. 

(4)  Impervious. 

[i)  How  Procured. 

(i)  It  is  the  bark  of  a  small  evergreen  oak. 

(2)  The  bark  is  carefully  removed  from  the  tree  every  eight  or  ten  years. 

(3)  It  is  then  slightly  charred  or  scorched. 

2.  Exercise. 

(i)  It  is  a  natural  instinct. 

(2)  It  is  necessary  for  muscular  development. 

(3)  It  is  healthy  in  moderation.     Want  of  exercise  increases  tendency  to  infec- 

tious disease. 

(4)  Abuse  of  exercise  is  dangerous. 

(5)  It  develops  the  muscular  sense. 

(6)  It  is  a  moral  agent. 

VH.  Seventh  Step.  Apparatus.— A  still  further  demand 
might  now  be  made.  The  apparatus  for  a  lesson  should  be  given, 
and  from  this  a  lesson  should  be  constructed  showing  what  use 
could  be  made  of  it.  The  apparatus  used  should  always  be  stated 
at  the  head  of  the  lesson — both  special  and  general  apparatus.  It 
is  one  of  the  four  guiding  and  explanatory  items  which  should  find 
a  place  at  the  head  of  most  notes  of  lessons,  and  the  lesson  should 
be  carefully  thought  out,  and  the  apparatus  jotted  down,  before  the 
"  Notes  "  are  attempted.  Subjoined  is  an  illustration  of  what  is 
meant ;— 


54  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  SOME  FLOWER. 


2 

3 
4 

Class      -        -        - 
Time      - 
Aim 
Apparatus      - 

Standard  IIL 

Forty  minutes. 

To  cultivate  a  love  of  flowers. 

B.B.,    coloured    chalks,    slates    and    pencils,   specimens    of 

flowers,  lenses,  needles,  pigskin,  treacle,  a  glass  vessel  for 

holding  water. 

Matter. 

Method. 

The  matter  should  be  commenced  here. 

The  method  should  be  commenced  here. 

VHI.  Final  Step.  Complete  Notes. — The  pupil  should  now, 
after  some  practice  under  the  last  head,  be  able  to  write  complete 
notes  of  lessons  unaided.  Of  course,  all  notes  will  still  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  head  teacher  for  criticism  ;  but  no  special  prepara- 
tory aid  as  detailed  in  the  various  steps  will  be  given.  vShould 
any  particular  weakness  be  shown  in  writing  these  unaided  notes, 
a  return  should  be  made  to  the  particular  "  step  "  for  further  aid 
and  practice. 

Lessons  Criticised. 

I.  A  Crood  Lesson. — The  following  tests  have  been  laid 
down  : — 

1.  Are  the  main  points  told  or  discovered?  As  a  rule  they  must  not  be 
told. 

(a)  Is  each  point  a  problem  to  the  class? 
[d)  Is  it  clear  before  the  class? 
{c)  Is  its  difficulty  felt  ? 
{d)  Is  the  process  one  of  thought? 
{e)  Is  everything  (that  can  be)  pictured  out? 

(/)  Is  every  point  illustrated  by  incident  and  analogy  to  make  it  still  clearer 
and  to  fit  it  firmly? 

2.  Is  there  a  right  use  of  experiments  and  diagrams? 

3.  Is  there  a  sifting  examination  at  the  end  of  each  point,  and  a  recapitu- 
lation of  the  lesson  at  its  close? 

4.  Has  too  much  been  attempted? 

5.  Is  there  a  proper  use  of  the  B.B.  ? 

6.  Is  there  a  well-defined  purpose  in  view  ? 

7.  Is  the  plan  of  the  lesson  simple,  natural,  and  logical  ? 

H.  A  Bad  Lesson. — One  of  H.M.I.'s  summarises  bad  lessons 
as  follows : — 

1.  The  Echo  Lesson. — Mere  statements  and  questions. 

2.  The  Lecture  Lesson. — Exhausts  children,  and  often  sends  them  to  sleep. 

3.  The  Desultory  Lesson. — A  number  of  disconnected  topics. 

4.  The  Discursive  Lesson. — A  comet  lesson. 

5.  The  Personal  Lesson. — The  Inspector  is  lectured,  instead  of  the  class 
being  taught. 

9,  The  Disproportipnate  Lesson*. — Details  qrovvcl  out  the  essential  points, 


NOTES  ON  LESSONS.  55 

7.  The  Assumptive  Lesson. — The  teacher  either  disregards  altogether  the 
previous  knowledge  of  the  children,  or  assumes  greater  knowledge  than  they 
possess. 

8.  The  Mechanical  Lesson. — The  questions  do  not  exercise  the  intelligence. 

9.  The  Irrational  Lesson.-  Attempts  are  made  to  elicit  from  children 
matters  of  fact  (lieiglUs,  lengths,  etc.). 

A  Criticism  Ijesson. 

I.  What  it  is,— A  criticism  lesson  is  really  a  training 
lesson  for  the  young  teacher.  In  it  he  puts  forth  his  best 
methods  and  powers.  It  is  a  special  effort ;  the  summit  of 
a  teacher's  skill  and  nerve.  It  is  a  composite  and  difficult 
production,  requiring  for  its  success  a  theoretical  and  practical 
knowledge  of  teaching;  the  aid  of  a  good,  conscientious,  and 
skilful  head  teacher;  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  of  child 
mind,  character,  and  life.  Furthermore,  the  personal  equation 
must  always  be  a  strong  factor.  There  must  be  good  disciplinary 
powers,  ready  tact,  and  a  warm  and  sympathetic  nature,  to  beget 
effort  and  attention.  In  the  earlier  days,  perhaps  even  all  through 
a  pupil  teacher's  engagement,  it  should  follow  Model  Lessons  given 
by  the  head  teacher  or  some  well-qualified  assistant.  A  model 
for  imitation  is  an  aid  worth  more  than  all  information  gained  by 
reading  and  lecture  ;  and,  above  all,  it  bestows  confidence. 

H.  Its  Subject  Matter. — Too  often  the  subject  matter  is  con- 
fined to  object  lessons,  because  these  offer  special  scope  for  prepa- 
ration, experiment,  illustration,  and  criticism.  But  criticism 
lessons  should  embrace  all  the  school  subjects — especially  the 
standard  and  class  subjects.  These  form  the  greater  part  of  a 
child's  education,  and  the  methods  used  in  imparting  them  are 
very  important  in  their  effects  upon  the  young  and  plastic  minds 
of  the  scholars. 

Ill,  Criticism, — This  should  be  two-sided  ;  it  should  expose 
the  weakness  and  commend  the  excellences.  Pupil  teachers  are 
rarely  allowed  to  criticise,  and  there  are  several  good  reasons 
against  it,  among  which  will  be  staff  difficulties  and  the  limited 
knowledge  and  experience  of  the  pupil  teachers.  But  where  possible 
senior  pupil  teachers  should  be  allowed  to  criticise  their  fellow 
pupil  teachers,  subject  to  the  after  criticism  of  the  head  teacher. 
There  would  then  be  an  extra  inducement  to  study  methods,  and 
extra  mental  effort  to  follow  a  lesson  critically.  There  would  be 
practice  in  Analysis  as  well  as  in  Synthesis.  At  present  the  criti- 
cism lesson  is  often  a  purely  synthetical  exercise—  the  exercise  in 
writing  the  lesson  ;  but  inter-criticism  would  call  forth  valuable 


56 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


analytic  effort,  and  for  this  reason  it  should  not  only  be  allowed, 
but  encouraged. 

There  are  a  few  rules  which  should  be  attended  to  in  criticising. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  overcrowd  with  instructions  for  criticism, 
or  confusion  and  mechanical  routine  may  be  the  undesired  result. 
The  power  to  criticise  well  and  in  detail  will  grow  with  experi- 
ence and  knowledge.  The  teacher  will  be  able  to  extend  his 
criticism  proportionately;  but  all  first  efforts  should  be  simple, 
and  directed  towards  the  essential  parts  of  a  lesson.  The  good 
should  receive  praise,  the  bad  correction  ;  but,  over  and  above 
these  two  essentials  of  criticism,  there  are  certain  other  things  to 
remember  and  to  do. 

1.  If  the  criticism  is  destructive,  it  must  also  be  constructive.      Where 

methods  are  condenmed,  better  methods  should  be  suggested. 

2.  Commendations  must  be  reasonable,  and  the  reasons  for  the  praise  should 

be  given. 

3.  Criticism  should  be  short  and  pointed.     There  is  no  compulsion  to  deal 

with  every  portion  of  a  lesson.  It  is  the  strength  and  weakness  that 
require  attention. 

4.  An  aid  in  the  shape  of  a  criticism  form  should  always  be  used.     No 

special  form  need  be  committed  to  memory.  A  form  devised  by  the 
student  himself  will  be  of  more  value  educationally  than  any  prepared 
form  copied  from  a  text  book.  For  such  a  form  must  of  necessity  be 
stereotyped,  and  therefore  not  suited  to  all  lessons.  The  form  should 
receive  its  shape  from  the  lesson,  not  the  lesson  from  the  form;  and 
the  latter  is  the  tendency  where  stereotyped  forms  are  used.  Again, 
the  form  should  not  be  crowded  with  too  much  detail,  or  the  criticiser 
becomes  a  slave  to  it.  The  following  form  is  not  offered  as  a  model 
for  all  lessons.  It  is  simply  a  graphic  suggestion  to  the  pupil  teacher 
or  student  to  draw  up  his  own. 

CRITICISM  FORM. 


No. 


Subject,  etc. 


Subject 

Class  or  Average  Age 

Time      - 

Apparatus 


Matter. 


Method. 


No. 

Teacher. 

No. 

Class. 

I 

2 
3 

4 

Manner             ..... 

(a)  Voice 

(b)  Gesture 

(c)  Position 

(rf)  Temper,  etc.  -        -        -        - 

Language         

Questions 

Recapitulation         -        - 
Experiment  and  Illustration 
Blackboard      

I 
2 
3 
4 

Attention 

Interest 

Discipline 

Intelligence 

57 


CHAPTER  V. 

CLASS  TEACHING. 

The  Teacher.  —To  organise  and  classify  a  school  well,  to  educate 
the  scholars  to  the  best  advantage,  the  teacher  must  be  well 
equipped  with  suitable  qualifications,  mental,  moral,  and  physical. 

I.  Mental  Qualifications. — The  teacher  must  be  well-read, 
with  an  ample  knowledge  of  the  subjects  embraced  in  the  school 
curriculum.  He  should  prepare  his  lessons  carefully,  so  that  his 
information  may  be  accurate  and  precise.  If  he  is  to  be  success- 
ful, he  must  be  a  permanent  student,  for  the  improvement  of  his 
own  mind,  and  to  keep  him  in  better  sympathy  with  his  class. 
He  must  be  natural  in  his  language,  and  modest  over  his  acquire- 
ments. He  should  form  good  intellectual  friendships,  so  that  he 
may  rub  shoulders  with  better  minds  than  his  own.  This  will 
check  the  too  prevalent  tendency  to  pedantry.  Teaching  requires 
good  descriptive  powers,  and  these  should  be  sedulously  cultivated. 
He  must  keep  pace  with  the  times  by  bringing  his  methods  up  to 
date,  and  this  can  only  be  done  by  study  and  observation. 

II.  Moral  Qualifications. — His  character  must  be  beyond 
reproach.  No  one  is  more  restlessly  watched  than  a  teacher ;  no 
one  is  more  persistently  copied ;  hence  he  must  guard  his  temper 
so  as  to  present  a  cheerful  front  to  his  class  at  all  times.  "  A  boy 
compelled  for  six  hours  a  day  to  see  the  countenance  and  hear  the 
voice  of  a  fretful,  unkind,  hard,  or  passionate  man  is  placed  in  a 
school  of  vice."  Cheerfulness  is  as  essential  as  anything.  Its 
association  with  work  is  a  valuable  lesson  to  the  children,  for  they 
learn  that  work  need  not  necessarily  mean  dulness.  The  teacher 
must  also  be  sympathetic.  Sympathy  is  contagious  and  productive, 
calling  forth  the  respect  and  esteem  of  pupils  and  parents,  and 
making  school  a  happy  place.  Especially  must  he  form  and  teach 
good  habits,  and  to  do  this  successfully  he  must  understand  the 
principles  upon  which  habit  depends — association,  repetition,  con- 
centration, and  nutrition.  All  motives  that  influence  children  for 
their  good  must   be  called   into  requisition,  and  bis  own  habits 


58 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


must  be  shown  to  be  guided  by  these  principles  and  influenced  by 
these  motives. 

III.  Physical  Qualifications. — A  teacher  should  be  a  fair 
adept  at  some  of  our  national  games,  so  that  he  may  maintain  his 
own  health  and  share  the  games  of  his  pupils.  He  should  be 
quick  of  eye  and  ear,  so  that  it  may  be  known  that  nothing  will 
escape  his  notice.  His  voice  should  be  nicely  pitched,  pleasant 
yet  authoritative,  and  in  discipline  it  should  be  used  as  little  as 
possible,  for  a  noisy  teacher  makes  a  noisy  class.  His  work  should 
also  be  characterised  by  energy  and  zeal,  and  a  healthy  body  is 
absolutely  essential  for  this.  Such  conditions  will  beget  like 
qualities  in  his  pupils,  and  bring  immediate  and  future  profit. 

The  Diary. — Each  pupil  teacher  is  recommended  to  keep  a 
diar}^,  which  should  be  the  log  book  of  his  professional  life.  It 
should  duly  show  each  subject,  and  the  quantity  of  that  subject 
set  for  preparation  ;  it  should  contain  columns  for  the  marks  or 
remarks  of  the  head  teacher ;  it  should  record  the  successes  and 
failures  (if  any)  of  the  year's  tests  and  examinations. 

Such  a  book  would  show  at  once  the  weak  and  strong  points  of 
the  year's  course  ;  it  would  indicate  the  course  of  study  in  each 
subjept,  and  so  lead  to  a  careful  mapping  out  of  that  self-set  revi- 
sion which  every  pupil  teacher  should  practise,  whether  attending 
"Centres"  or  not.  The  book  would  be  an  incentive  to  zeal, 
would  add  interest,  and  would  generate  a  legitimate  pride  in  the 
work.  It  would  also  be  valuable  for  inspection  and  reference  by 
the  head  teacher,  the  managers,  and  H.M.I.  It  would  give  the 
student  that  training  in  self-reliance,  forethought,  and  methodical 
work  which  are  the  only  guarantees  for  thoroughness  and  success. 

A  separate  book  should  be  kept  fot  criticisms  on  the  notes  of 
lessons.  An  ordinary  exercise  book  could  be  ruled  up  for  this 
purpose,  but  a  stiff-backed  book  is  recommended  for  preference. 
The  ruling  will  depend  upon  the  ambitions  and  chances  of  the 
pupil  teacher,  but  something  like  the  following  is  suggested : — 


Date.    I     Preparation. 


July  24, 

1894 


French  xxi. 

History, 
Charles  II. 
Arithmetic, 
page  209 ; 
Examples  6-12. 
Euclid  ii.  7. 


Marks  or 
Remarks. 


Notes  of 
1     Lessons. 


Criticism. 


These  are  to  be 
entered  here 
by  the  teach- 
er (P.T.). 


Sponge. 


Enter  the 

Criticism 

here. 


Examination 
Successes. 


Government 
Examination 

"Well". 

Freehand, ist 

Class. 

Advanced 

Physiology,  2nd 

Class. 


CLASS  TEACHING.  59 

The  remarks  in  the  third  column  would  be  added  after  the 
work  had  been  returned  by  the  head  teacher.  There  would  then 
be  no  "  mistakes,"  or  '*  forgettings,"  or  "  misunderstandings," 
which  are  always  more  unfortunate  for  the  pupil  teachers  than  for 
anybody  else. 

Exercise  Books. — Exercise  books  are  necessary  for  the  fol- 
lowing purposes : — 

1.  The  reproduction  of  work  learnt. 

2.  For  the   various  mathematical,   grammatical,   composition,    and   other 

exercises. 

3.  For  note-taking,  although  a  set  of  smaller  and  stiff-covered  books  is 

recommended  for  this  purpose. 

4.  For  scrap  work. 

The  first  three  should  be  kept  for  reference  and  revision. 
Furthermore,  H.M.I,  can  and  does  sometimes  ask  to  see  the  com- 
plete set  for  the  year.  Managers  also  sometimes  require  a  sight 
of  them.  A  separate  book  should  be  kept  for  each  subject,  and 
every  lesson  should  be  dated.  The  work  should  be  neat,  methodi- 
cal, and  easy  of  examination,  so  that  every  lesson  becomes  a 
training  for  good  teaching  in  school,  and  for  good  reproduction  in 
examinations. 

Aids  to  Teaching. — The  teacher  having  first  decided  what 
he  will  teach,  and  having  suitably  arranged  the  matter  he  has 
chosen,  has  next  to  consider  the  way  in  which  this  matter  shall 
be  presented  to  his  class.  Having  decided  the  what,  he  has  now 
to  decide  the  how.  Shall  it  be  by  experiment  and  observation,  by 
description,  definition,  or  explanation  ?  Or  shall  it  be  by  a  selec- 
tion from,  or  by  adopting  all  these  aids  ?  He  has  further  to  think 
out  his  style  of  questioning,  so  that  it  may  be  suitable  to  the  point 
before  the  class,  and  he  must  also  know  how  to  make  a  proper 
use  of  the  answers  given,  to  know  which  to  accept  and  which  to 
reject.  There  must  also  be  a  wise  use  of  examination  for  the 
purposes  of  reproduction.  All  these  items  constitute  the  aids  or 
instruments  used  in  teaching.  They  are  the  teacher's  tools,  and 
if  good  work  is  to  be  produced  the  right  tools  must  be  used  in  the 
right  way. 

A.  Examination  of  Classes. — Examination  is  one  of  the 
teacher's  aids,  and  properly  used,  it  may  be  made  very  valuable. 
Probably  most  teachers  have  a  system  of  periodical  examinations 
extending  throughout  the  year.  The  results  of  these  examinations 
should  be  registered  and  compared  from  period  to  period.  If  the 
tests   given  have  been  reasonable  and  just,  the  disappointments 


6o  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

revealed  by  an  examination  enable  the  teacher  the  better  to  guide 
his  work.    • 

I.  Methods. — Practically  all  methods  are  reducible  to  three. 

1.  By  written  tests. 

2.  By  oral  examination. 

3.  By  both  methods  combined. 

n.  The  "Written  Method. — Each  system  has  its  advantages 
and  disadvantages. 

1.  Advantages. 

{a)  The  pupils  are  thrown  entirely  on  t/ieir  own  resowces.     This  is  the 

dii'ect  value  of  the  method. 
(/;)  It  compels   careful    preparation   and   attention.      This   is  its  indirect 

value. 

(c)  It  cultivates  composition.     This  can  be  varied  by  the  monosyllabic  or 

phrase  method. 

2.  Disadvantages. 

((?)  //  requires  good  powej-s  of  composition,  and  this  is  a  separate  gift.  Pupils 
consciously  weak  in  composition  are  apt  to  be  discouraged.  To 
obviate  this  the  teacher  should  make  careful  allowances  in  such  cases. 

[b]  It  takes  up  too  much  time. 

\c)  It  may  lead  to  speculation.  A  pupil  may  simply  learn  those  portions 
which  look  most  likely  to  be  set. 

[d]  It  induces  '"brewing" .     Pupils  try  to  hide  their  ignorance  beneath  a 

foam  of  words. 

m.  The  Oral  Method. 

1.  Advantages. 

{a)  It  is,  or  can  be  made,  expeditious. 
\b)  It  maintains  more  inte?'est. 

{c)  It  is  more  Just.  It  enables  the  teacher  to  adapt  his  questions  to  the 
individual  capacities  of  his  children. 

2.  Disadvantages. 

{a)  Unless  the  teacher  is  alert,  it  enables  the  lasy  to  shelter  themselves 

under  the  bright  and  industrious. 
(b)   There  is  a  tendency  to  simultaneous  aitswering,  and  the  checking  of  this 

takes  time  and  sometimes  brings  discouragement. 
{c)  It  induces  guessing. 

TV.  The  Double  Method. 

{a)  This  method  may  be  used  sometimes  with  advantage.     A  short  written 

test,  followed  up  by  oral  questioning,  ought  to  enable  any  average 

teacher  to  thoroughly  examine  his  class. 
(b)  The  value  of  this  method  is  acknowledged  by  most  University  and  other 

examiners,  who  set  papers  for  written  tests,  but  retain  the  right  of 

viva  voce  examination  to  follow. 

B.  Questioning^.  I.  Conditions  for  Success. — Few  parts  of 
a  teacher's  work  offer  such  fine  opportunities  for  showing  his 
professional  calibre  as  questioning.  Skilful  questioning  is  not 
easy,  nor  is  it  common — at  least,  among  young  teachers.  This  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at,  when  we  consider  the  mental  demands  it 


CLASS  TEACHING.  6i 

makes.  Very  often  there  is  little  or  no  opportunity  for  the  young 
teacher  to  hear  good  models,  and  this  is  very  essential  for  success 
in  most  cases.  Then  there  is  also  required  good  analytic  and 
classifying  powers ;  the  ability  to  see  and  maintain  a  logical  connec- 
tion,  and  the  power  of  description.  Exercise  strengthens  faculty, 
and  practice  makes  perfect,  and  this  latter  requirement  is  within 
the  reach  of  all,  although  it  is  pot  enough  of  itself. 

n.  The  Objects  of  Questioning. — Most  of  these  are  obvious. 

1.  To  find  out  what  the  child  knows.     This  is  necessary  before  the  teacher 

can  profitably  give  any  further  instruction  ;  and,  furthermore,  it  is 
necessary  to  test  from  time  to  time  in  a  lesson  what  has  been  taught. 

2.  To  keep  the  minds  of  the  children  active,  and  to  maintain  attention.     It 

is  necessary  to  know  whether  each  child  is  mentally  awake,  whether  he 
is  following  the  teacher,  and  whether  he  understands  what  is  given 
him.  Otherwise  the  teacher  would  fail  to  discover  the  misconceptions 
and  difficulties  of  the  pupils,  and  much  of  his  teaching  would  be 
wasted. 

III.  Places  for  Questioning^. 

1.  At  the  begimiing  of  the  lesson. 

2.  At  the  end  of  the  lesson. 

3.  At  any  point  ox  great  division  of  the  lesson. 

4.  And,  generally,  when  there  is  any  doubt  that  any  portion  of  the  class 

has  failed  to  grasp  any  point  or  fact  in  the  lesson. 

IV.  Rules  for  the  Formation  of  G-ood  Questions. 

1.  Positive  Rules. 

(a)  The  language  should  be  simple,  clear,  fafniliar,  terse,  and  to  the  point. 

\b)  The  question  should  be  suited  to  the  capacity  of  the  class  ;  that  is,  it  should 
not  be  so  framed  as  to  be  beyond  their  mental  grasp.  Capacity  em- 
braces knowledge  and  natural  ability;  over-estimate  neither  if  you  wish 
to  succeed. 

(6)  The  questions  should  follow  in  proper  sequence  ;  that  is,  they  should  be 
logically  arranged. 

{d)  They  should  also  be  suited  to  the  info r^nation  of  the  children  ;  that  is, 
they  must  not  embody  or  demand  knowledge  not  within  the  possession 
of  the  children.  A  question  may  be  quite  within  the  ability  of  a  class, 
but  out  of  their  present  knowledge, 

[e]  Never  lose  sight  of  the  real  function  of  questioning — to  find  out  what 
children  do  know  :  not  what  they  do  not  know. 

2.  Negative  Rules. 

{a)  See  that  the  repetition  of  the  question  does  not  add  to  it. 

\b)  Avoid  leading  questions,  and  do  not  let  them  suggest  their  own  answers. 

Make  them  demand  a  reasonable  effort. 
[c)  The  questions  must  not  be  ambiguous  or  vague. 
\d)  Avoid  elliptical  questions.     They  are  noisy,  and  neither  indicative  of 

sustained  attention  nor  knowledge.     Their  use  should  only  be  tolerated 

for  a  rapid  interrogatory  recapitulation. 

V.  Defective  Questions. — Any  breach  of  the  above  rules  will 
lead  to  defective  questioning. 

C,  Answering. — The  skilful  manipulation  of  answers  is  an- 


62  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

other  mark  of  the  gifted  or  experienced  teacher,  but  much  may  be 
done  by  the  proper  comprehension  of  a  few  primary  principles. 

I.  Answers;  their  Value. — Answers  are  valuable  in  teach- 
ing:— 

1.  Because  they  necessitate   attention,   and  so  help  to  form  the  valuable 

habit  of  concentration. 

2.  They  require  thought,  and  so  give  training  to  the  i-eason. 

3.  They  necessarily  exercise  the  memory. 

4.  They  induce  mental  activity,  and  so  sharpen  the  wits. 

5.  I'hey  measure  the  degree  of  success  attained  in  the  lesson. 

6.  They  offer  some  amount  of  logical  training  both  to  teacher  and  class. 

II.  Good  Answers. — Good  answers  are  known  by  the  follow- 
ing marks : — 

1.  Thoughtfulness. — A  good  answer  will  always  show  thought,  although  it 
may  not  be  a  ready  answer. 

2.  Clearness  of  Expression. — The  language  used  should  be  sufficient  to 
express  the  whole  idea  or  statement.  It  should  give  all  that  is  asked  for,  and 
nothing  more. 

3.  Correct  Interpretation.— This  will  be  a  result  of  thoughtfulness  and 
natural  ability.  Pupils  often  fail  to  interpret  a  question  correctly  because  they 
allow  themselves  little  or  no  time  to  grasp  its  point. 

4.  Good  Arrangement. — This,  like  the  previous  quality,  applies  particularly 
to  written  answers.  If  a  question  contains  more  than  one  point,  each  point 
should  be  answered  under  a  separate  heading.  Again,  many  answers  admit  of 
clear,  terse,  methodical  arrangement,  and  it  is  the  pupil's  business  to  detect 
and  use  these  opportunities. 

5.  Economy. — There  should  be  a  proper  economy  of  time,  space,  and  lan- 
guage in  the  answer.  Pupils  often  give  more  than  is  asked  for  because  they 
cannot  give  enough  of  what  is  demanded.  This  is  always  unwise,  and  must 
be  discouraged. 

m.  Received  Answers. 

1.  Good  Answers. — These  should  be  accepted  and  commended. 

2.  Honest  Answers. — These  may  or  may  not  be  good,  but  if  they  indicate 
honest  effort  they  should  always  be  accepted.  Never  reject  an  answer  with  the 
slightest  atom  of  truth  or  effort  in  it. 

3.  Partial  Answers.— An  answer  need  not  necessarily  be  rejected  because  it 
is  not  full,  exact,  or  neat.  Encourage  a  free  expression  of  thought  if  you  wish 
to  train  the  intelligence. 

IV.  Rejected  Answers. 

1.  Flippant  or  Careless  Answers. — These  should  be  discouraged  and  re- 
pressed. A  little  judicious  exposure  will  be  useful  for  this  purpose.  But  never 
snub  or  ridicule,  however  unsatisfactory  the  answer  may  be  ;  for  educationally 
the  result  is  disastrous. 

2.  Hasty  or  Random  Answers. — These  should  also  be  refused ;  but  at  the 
same  time  they  should  receive  attention.  The  motive  which  made  them  hasty 
or  random  must  be  sought,  and  the  correction  applied  to  that. 

3.  Incorrect  Answers. — These  may  or  may  not  be  rejected.  The  teacher 
must  use  his  discretion.  They  will  usually  fall  under  one  of  the  other  heads, 
and  shoulc\^  be  treated  accordingly.  The  answer  may  show  thought,  although 
incorrect ;  it  may  show  honest  effort,  although  not  what  was  expected  or  de- 
sired ;  and  in  either  case  it  should  be  treated  tenderly,  so  as  to  encourage 
further  effort. 

4.  Guesses. — Reject  these,  for  they  usually  arise  from  idleness  or  inatten- 
tion.    They  may  arise  from  stupidity  or  ignorance,  and  in  such  a  case  will 


CLASS  TEACHING.  63 

require  kind  treatment.     But  otherwise  expose  by  further  questioning,  which 
may  bring  a  little  corn-ction  to  bear  upon  the  offender. 

8.  Dishonest  Answers.— These  will  sometimes  be  met  with  in  written 
answers.  They  may  be  copied  from  a  neighbour,  from  a  text  book,  from 
smuggled  notes,  or  in  some  kindred  way.  The  answer  may  involve  a  repro- 
duction of  something  previously  done  in  an  exercise  book,  and  still  there  exis- 
tent, and  this  may  be  slyly  utilised.  Reject  all  such  answers,  for  they  indicate 
a  weak  or  low  moral  tone,  which  is  something  far  worse  than  ignorance, 
whether  it  arise  from  stupidity  or  inattention. 

D.  Explanation. — By  explanation  in  teaching  is  meant  the 
process  by  which  is  cleared  away  from  a  word,  phrase,  or  state- 
ment all  obscurity  of  meaning,  so  as  to  make  it  intelligible.  The 
meaning  is  made  plain,  or  else  it  is  not  explanation.  Then  the. 
fact  or  idea  must  be  stated  in  its  simplest  form,  and  this  implies  a 
good  command  of  language  and  a  readiness  of  illustration  which  are 
only  obtained  by  plenty  of  good  general  reading.  It  is  more  than 
the  mere  changing  of  one  word  or  phrase  for  another,  for  the  sub- 
stituted phrase  must  be  simpler  and  clearer. 

In  most  lessons  there  is  much  to  explain,  and  the  teacher  who 
omits  any  necessary  explanation  is  wasting  his  opportunities.  He 
must  be  watchful  to  detect  and  utilise  all  occasions  for  its  use. 
The  parts  of  a  lesson  are  often  like  the  links  of  a  chain — one 
obscurity  may  spoil  the  whole  lesson  to  some  members  of  the 
class. 

A  common  defect  in  explanation  is  the  added  difficulty  of  the 

explanation.     The  substituted  word  is  often   more   difficult  than 

the  original  one,  e.g.  : — 

Glen,  a  dale. 

Man,   a  living,  organised  being,  having  sensation,   reason,  and  voluntary 

motion. 
Grimace,  a  distortion  of  the  countenance  expressive  of  affectation  or  some 

strong  emotion. 

Perhaps  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  to  teachers  that 
this  is  not  explanation,  but  greater  obscurity  or  confusion.  The 
language  used  must  be  within  the  grasp  of  the  children's  capacity, 
and  the  method  must  be  intelligible. 

E.  Description. —By  description  is  meant  the  act  of  repre- 
senting a  thing  by  words  or  signs,  or  by  both.  It  is  the  process 
of  forming  a  word-picture^  and  is  sometimes  called  word-painting. 
It  tries  to  give  an  account  of  the  nature,  properties,  or  appearance 
of  a  thing,  so  that  the  children  may  form  a  just  conception  of  it. 
It  expands  the  work  of  a  definition,  is  sometimes  described  as 
^^  picturing  out,''  and  is  really  another  form  of  exposition.  Good 
descriptive  power  may  be  a  gift,  but  more  often  it  is  a  matter  of 


64  A   NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

cultivation.  But  a  good  description  involves  a  good  mental  pic- 
ture of  what  is  to  be  described,  for  the  description  ceases  to  be 
good  if  anything  essential  is  omitted  ;  and  above  all,  the  ideas  and 
the  language  which  expresses  them  must  be  within  the  knowledge 
or  experience  of  the  children. 

Exposition  is  really  a  form  of  description,  and  it  is  used  to  clear 
away  obscurities  from  whatever  cause  they  may  arise.  By  expo- 
sition the  sense  or  meaning  is  laid  open,  and  it  may  be  called  the 
art  of  clearly  conveying  thoughts  or  ideas.  As  in  other  cases,  the 
language  and  ideas  must  be  within  the  capacity  of  the  children. 

F.  Definition. — When  we  define  a  word,  we  seek  to  determine 
its  common  qualities  or  marks.  We  seek  to  lay  bare  the  whole 
meaning  of  the  term.  The  definition  can  also  be  expressed  in  the 
form  of  a  proposition,  in  which  case  the  term  to  be  defined  is  the 
subject,  and  the  explanation  the  predicate,  e.g.  : — 


Subject. 

Predicate. 

Man  {the  term)        ... 

is  a  food-cooking  animal  {explanation). 

Contrast  is  an  important  part  of  definition  ;  for  in  defining  any 
term,  such  as  government,  it  is  contrasted  with  other  forms  of 
government.  Three  terms  are  involved  in  definition,  the  meaning 
of  which  the  pupil  must  thoroughly  grasp  before  attempting  to 
frame  definitions.     They  are  as  follow  : — 

1.  Genus. — This  is  that  part  of  the  definition  which  is  common  to  the  term 
defined,  and  to  the  other  terms  with  which  it  has  been  compared. 

2.  Species.^ — This  is  the  term  which  has  to  be  defined. 

3.  Differentia.— This  is  the  portion  which  distinguishes  the  term  defined 
from  the  terms  with  which  it  has  been  compared. 

The  student  will  now  understand  what  is  meant  when  it  is  said 

that  Definition  should  be  per  Genus  et  Differentias.     A  term  (Species) 

has  to  be  defined,  which  term  (Species)  is  compared  with  a  larger 

class  (Genus),  and  the  differences  (Differentiae)  are  pointed  out.     A 

study  of  the  examples  given  will  show  that  in  each  case  a  Species 

is  defined  ;  that  it  proceeds  through  (per)  the  larger  class  (Genus) 

and  points  out  the  differences  (Differentias). 


Species. 

Genus. 

Differentias. 

A  house  is 

a  building  to  dwell  in. 

A  church 

,, 

to  worship  in. 

A  barn 

to  store  grain  in. 

A  school 

to  teach  in. 

A  factory 

„ 

to  manufacture  goods  in. 

A  bank 

,, 

to  deposit  money  in. 

A  theatre 

,, 

to  see  plays  in. 

CLASS  TEACHING. 


65 


Rules  of  Definition. 

authorities: — 


-These  are  thus  laid  down  by  our  best 


it  must  state  the 


A  definition  must  be  per  genus  et  differentias ;  i.e. 

essential  attributes  defined. 
A  definition  must  not  contain  the  name  defined. 
The  definition  must  be  exactly  equal  to  the  species  defined  ;  i.e. ,  it  must 

denote  the  species,  the  whole  species,  and  nothing  but  the  species. 
It  must  not  be  expressed  in  obscure,  figurative,  or  ambiguous  language. 
It  must  not  be  negative  where  it  can  be  positive. 


Experiment,  Observation,  Classification,  and  Reasoning,  will 
be  found  under  the  head  of  Elementary  Science. 


NOTE  BOOKS. 


Their  Use. 


1.  They  enable  the  pupil  to  take  down 
any  detail  given  during  the  lesson.  It  is 
not  safe  to  trust  the  memory  too  much 
owing  to  the  amount  of  work  thrown  on  it 
and  the  conflict  of  interests;  the  strong 
over-ride  and  crush  out  the  weak. 

2.  They  improve  the  method  of  the 
class,  which  learns  to  copy  the  teacher. 

3.  They  enable  the  pupil  to  get  a  number 
of  peg  words  down,  which  bind  the  lesson 
and  make  its  reproduction  thorough. 

By  peg  words  are  meant  suggestive  words 
or  phrases  which  are  useful  to  hang  facts 
and  statements  upon  in  the  memory. 

4.  They  are  a  fine  aid  to  concentration, 
for  the  attention  must  be  keenly  maintained 
to  make  "  notes  "  of  any  value.  This  is  one 
of  their  best  uses. 

5.  They  thus  aid  the  memory  by  fixing 
the  attention  and  by  facilitating  revision. 

6.  They  are  economical,  for  they  are 
calculated  to  save  the  purchase  of  other 
books. 

7.  They  may  develop  a  power  of  analysis 
and  condensation  if  the  pupil  is  tramed 
to  reproduce  the  substance  of  a  lesson  in  a 
synoptic  form. 

8.  They  may  increase  the  vocabulary 
and  power  of  composition  of  the  pupils. 


Their  Abuse. 


1.  Mere  dictation  of  notes  is  extrava- 
gant and  almost  useless.  Notes  are  only 
valuable  when  the  class  has  to  reproduce 
the  lesson  afterwards  by  the  aid  of  their 
own  self-made  notes. 

2.  Copying  notes  from  a  book  is  a  waste 
of  time.  The  process  is  purely  mechanical, 
and  the  thoughts  of  the  author  are  merely 
transferred  from  one  book  to  another. 

3.  They  are  also  destructive.  "  Men 
seldom  read  again  what  they  have  com- 
mitted to  paper,  nor  remember  what  they 
have  so  committed  one  iota  the  better  for 
their  additional  trouble.  On  the  contrary, 
I  believe  it  has  a  direct  tendency  to  destroy 
the  promptitude  and  tenacity  of  memory  by 
diminishing  the  vigour  of  present  attention, 
and  by  reducing  the  mind  to  depend  on 
future  reference  "  (Sydney  Smith). 

Perhaps  this  statement  goes  too  far. 
Self-made  notes,  if  well  made,  involve  a 
power  of  analysis  and  a  readiness  of  re- 
vision which  many  think  have  some  value. 

4.  Copious  note-taI(ing  is  a  waste  of 
time  and  distracting. 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I.— Say  what  is  the  use  to  a  pupil  teacher  of  keeping  a  diary  of  employments  or 
notes  of  the  lessons  he  or  she  gives.  If  you  have  been  accustomed  to  preserve  such  a 
record,  describe  it. 

2. — State  what  use  you  have  made  of  note  books  and  exercise  books  as  a  pupil 
teacher,  and  how  such  books  ought  to  be  kept. 

3.— What  is  the  best  method  of  examining  a  class  ?  What  kind  of  questioning 
should  be  avoided  ? 

4.— On  receiving  new  scholars  in  the  school,  what  is  the  best  way  of  deciding  in 
what  class  to  place  them  ?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

5. — "  The  answers  given  by  children  to  questions  are  too  often  confined  to  single 
words."  Why  should  this  be  objected  to,  and  what  means  can  be  adopted  to  encourage 
children  to  make  complete  statements  and  sentences  of  their  own  ? 

6.— What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  (if  any)  of  encouraging  the  scholars 
to  put  their  own  questions  at  the  end  of  a  lesson  ? 


66 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OBJECT  LESSONS. 

"  It  has  been  observed  that  in  schools  in  which  Object  Teach- 
ing has  been  introduced  with  most  success,  the  teaj^hers  have 
carefully  distinguished  between  two  kinds  of  instruction,  which  in 
other  schools  are  not  seldom  confused.  These  two  kinds  of 
instruction  are — (i)  observation  of  the  object  itself;  and  (2)  giving 
information  about  the  object.  This  distinction  is  of  importance, 
because  the  scope  and  method  of  the  lesson  differ  according  to  its 
nature.  Object  teaching  leads  the  scholar  to  acquire  knowledge 
by  observation  and  experiment ;  and  no  instruction  is  properly  so 
called  unless  an  object  is  presented  to  the  learner  so  that  the 
addition  to  his  knowledge  may  be  made  through  the  senses." 

"Junior  teachers  have  not  unfrequently  given  lessons  before 
H.M.  Inspectors  which  were  wrongly  described  as  object  lessons, 
because  in  dealing  with  the  topic  selected  no  suitable  appeal  was 
made  to  the  eye  of  the  scholar.  A  lesson,  for  example,  on  the 
elephant  to  children  in  village  schools,  who  have  no  opportunity 
of  visiting  either  museums  or  zoological  gardens,  may  convey 
information  and  store  the  memory  with  interesting  facts ;  but  it 
does  not  cultivate  the  habit  of  obtaining  knowledge  directly  and 
at  first  hand,  or  develop  the  faculty  of  observation.  However 
well  the  lesson  may  be  illustrated  by  diagrams,  pictures,  models, 
or  lantern  slides,  if  the  children  have  no  opportunity  of  handling 
or  watching  the  actual  object  which  is  being  dealt  with,  the  teacher 
will  be  giving  an  information  lesson,  rather  than  an  object  lesson. 
It  should  be  always  remembered  that  in  object  lessons  the  im- 
parting of  information  is  secondary  to  the  cultivation  of  the  faculty 
of  observation." 

"  Object  teaching  should  further  be  distinguished  from  instruc- 
tion in  natural  science.  It  is  elementary  science  only  in  so  far  as  it 
aids  the  child  to  observe  some  of  the  facts  of  nature  upon  which 
natural  science  is  founded  ;  but  as  it  deals  with  such  topics  with- 


OBJECT  LESSONS.  67 

out  formal  arrangement,  it  differs  widely  from  the  systematic 
study  of  a  particular  science.  The  principles  of  scientific  classifi- 
cation, the  continuous  study  of  one  group  of  natural  phenomena, 
the  generalisation  from  facts  and  the  search  for  natural  laws, 
belong  to  a  later  stage  of  mental  discipline,  which  will  be  much 
more  effectual  if  it  is  being  based  upon  the  preliminary  training  of 
the  senses  through  sound  object  teaching.  It  is  most  important, 
therefore,  that  if,  for  example,  object  lessons  are  given  on  plant 
life,  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  treat  them  as  a  continuous 
introduction  to  the  study  of  botany,  or,  if  the  lessons  relate  to 
animal  life,  to  the  study  of  zoology.  In  object  teaching  the  chief 
interest  in  the  lesson  should  centre  in  the  object  itself." 

Suggestions. 

1.  The  teacher  should  select  only  so  many  of  the  objects  set  forth  in  the 

appended  or  other  similar  lists  as  can  be  dealt  with  in  the  year  without 
overburdening  the  scholars.  Habits  of  observation  are  better  culti- 
vated by  the  thorough  examination  of  a  few  objects  than  by  the  super- 
ficial treatment  of  many. 

2.  No  object  should  be  chosen  which  the  tecuher  cannot  thoroughly  illustrate 

either  by  the  object  itself  or  by  some  adequate  representation  of  the 
object,  or  by  both.  All  that  is  purely  technical,  whether  in  the  mode 
of  study  or  the  language  and  terminology,  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

3.  The  children  should  be  encouraged  to  bring  with  them  to  the  lesson 

illustrative  specimens  which  they  have  collected  or  borrowed  from 
friends. 

4.  The  children  should  be  encouraged  to  make  simple  drawings  illustrative 

of  their  observations,  wherever  possible,  and  in  certain  cases  to  make 
simple  records  on  square-ruled  paper.  Clay  modelling  and  other 
manual  occupations  may  be  employed  to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  im- 
pressions which  the  children  form,  and  to  fix  them  in  their  minds. 
Teachers  should  also  frequently  illustrate  details  of  the  lesson  by  B.B. 
drawings.  Children  who  are  jaded  in  five  minutes  by  a  lecture  will 
be  open-eyed  and  receptive  for  half  an  hour  while  the  teacher  draws 
as  well  as  talks. 

5.  Visits  to  museums  and  other  institutions  of  educational  value  are  now 

recognised  by  the  Code,  and  may  advantageously  be  undertaken  where 
possible  in  connection  with  the  object  teaching.  Occasional  class 
excursions  out  of  school  hours  (or,  if  the  instruction  be  in  accordance 
with  Article  12  (/)  of  the  Code,  in  school  hours),  under  proper  guid- 
ance, will  enable  teachers  both  to  provide  suitable  objects  and  to  con- 
firm previous  impressions.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  objects 
when  they  are  brought  into  the  class  room  cannot  be  there  studied 
under  their  ordinary  conditions,  and  therefore  it  is  important  by  a 
proper  use  of  such  expeditions  to  let  the  children  see  what  part  the 
object  plays  in  its  usual  surroundings. 

6.  If  the  scholars  are  to  learn  intelligently  from  their  object  lessons,  the 

first  requisite  is  trained  attention.  The  right  method  of  securing  this 
is  to  direct,  in  a  conversational  way,  the  attention  of  the  children  to 
the  different  parts  of  the  object  in  an  orderly  manner,  and  explain  the 
relation  of  each  part  to  the  whole.  After  the  analysis  or  study  of 
separate  detail,  the  object  should  again  be  treated  as  a  whole.  It 
should  not  be  left  in  fragments,  but  the  division  into  parts  should  be 
followed  when  possible  by  the  reconstruction  of  them  into  their  original 


68  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

unity.  Through  such  teaching  the  vague  and  indefinite  impressions 
which  the  children  receive  from  objects  when  they  are  first  presented 
to  them  are  gradually  converted  into  clear  mental  pictures. 

7.  "  The  attempt  to  teach  children  to  be  accurate  in  observation  cannot  be 

separated  from  the  need  of  making  them  acctirate  in  description.  After 
the  children  have  been  trained  to  observe  a  fact,  they  should  be  prac- 
tised in  making  a  correct  statement  of  it  in  a  sentence  of  their  own. 
This  oral  answering  in  complete  sentences  will  lead  to  correct  use  of 
the  English  language,  both  in  talking  and  writing,  and  will  store  the 
mind  with  a  useful  vocabulary.  In  the  higher  standards,  the  children 
will  be  able  to  write  brief  weekly  compositions  in  which  they  may 
express  in  a  written  form  the  ideas  which  they  have  acquired  through 
oral  instruction." — Circular  369. 

8.  The  lesson  should  be  previously  well  thought  out,  the  subject  matter 

should  be  logically  arranged ;  the  illustrations  should  be  varied  and 
suitable  ;  there  should  be  a  proper  use  of  experiment ;  the  childish 
love  of  activity  should  be  used  ;  the  personal  qualities  of  the  teacher 
must  include  tact,  sympathy,  and  patience,  and  his  language  and 
questions  must  be  suited  to  the  capacity  of  the  class  ;  the  sequence  of 
teaching  must  be  observed,  and  the  method  of  teaching  nmst  ha  psycho- 
logical;  i.e.,  the  lessons  should  exercise  the  senses  chiefly  at  first ;  the 
conceptive  faculty  next ;  and  the  reasoning  faculty  last. 

Their  Value. 

I.  Principal  Uses. 

1.  The  first  and  most  important  is  to  teach  the  children  to  observe,  com- 

pare, and  contrast. 

2.  To  impart  information. 

3.  To  remforce  the  other  two  by  making  the  results  of  them  the  basis  for 

instruction  in  language,  drawing,  number,  modelling,  and  other 
handiwork. 

II.  Minor  Uses. 

1.  Object  teaching  makes  the  lives  of  the  children  more  happy  and  inter- 

esting by  opening  up  an  easily  accessible  and  attractive  field  for  the 
exercise  of  brain,  hand,  and  eye, 

2.  It  gives  the  children  an  opportunity  of  learning  the  simplest  natural 

facts,  and  directs  their  attention  to  external  objects,  making  their 
education  less  bookish. 

3.  "  It  develops  a  love  of  nature  and  an  interest  in  living  things,  and  corrects 

the  tendency  which  exists  in  many  children  to  destructiveness  and 
thoughtless  unkindness  to  animals,  and  shows  the  ignorance  and 
cruelty  of  such  conduct.  The  value  of  the  services  which  many 
animals  render  to  man  should  be  dwelt  upon,  and  the  importance  of 
kindly  treating  them  and  preserving  them  should  be  pointed  out."— 
Circtilar  369. 

4.  Whilst  training  the  intelligence  generally,  they  especially  afford  a  fine 

medium  for  the  training  of  the  senses,  and  in  so  far  as  the  first  of  the 
principal  uses  does  not  include  this,  it  should  be  counted  in  that  cate- 
gory. It  also  aids  the  teaching  of  the  abstract  by  the  concrete,  and 
arouses  a  healthy  curiosity. 

5.  Object  teaching  has  also  a  moral  use.     It  helps  to  form  good  habits 

which  have  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  lives  of  the  children  when 
school  days  are  over.  It  helps  to  develop  a  higher  moral  tone,  for 
the  beauties  and  marvels  of  nature,  exemplified  in  everything  around 
them,  must  tend  to  produce  feelings  of  wonder,  reverence  and  grati- 
tude to  the  Great  Author  of  all. 


OBJECT  LESSONS.  69 

6.  Object  lessons  encourage  a  tendency  to  self-reliance  in  children,  and  in 
developing  this  tendency  they  do  not  seek  so  much  to  give  information 
as  to  help  the  children  to  get  information  for  themselves.  They  not 
only  teach  children  to  see  things  instead  of  merely  looking  at  them,  as 
is  pointed  out  under  their  principal  uses,  but  they  teach  them  to  de- 
compose the  confused  aggregate  of  impressions  which  things  ' '  at  first 
make  upon  the  mind  ;  to  get  them  to  classify  and  to  generalise  and  to 
connect  simple  phenomena  with  their  antecedents  and  consequents ; 
exercise  the  reason  ;  and  to  do  this  in  Nature's  own  way,  by  bringing 
the  learner  as  far  as  possible  into  direct  contact  with  things,  and  satisfy 
his  own  instinctive  needs". 

The  Training  of  the  Senses. 

One  of  the  primary  objects  of  object  teaching  is  the  proper 
training  of  the  senses,  especially  of  sight  and  touch,  which  are 
pre-eminently  the  intellectual  senses.  The  importance  of  sense 
training  is  further  recognised  by  the  admission  of  hand  and  eye 
training,  kindergarten  and  its  developments,  drawing,  clay  model- 
ling, and  manual  instruction  into  the  school  curriculum.  All 
these  exercise  the  senses  in  a  number  of  ways,  and  so  supply  the 
materials  of  knowledge ;  for  there  can  be  neither  a  wide  nor  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  world  around  us  without  the  proper 
exercise  of  the  senses  through  material  objects.  This  is  the  first  and 
most  important  element  in  the  training  of  the  senses. 

Having  presented  proper  materials  in  a  suitable  variety,  the 
teacher  next  teaches  the  children  to  observe  objects  as  distinct 
from  mere  sight  sensations.  Points  which  would  escape  the  cur- 
sory glance  of  most  children  are  detected  with  the  teacher's  aid, 
and  an  effort  is  made  to  stimulate  curiosity  and  arouse  interest.  The 
children  are  invited  to  handle  the  things  for  themselves  and  to 
examine  them.  As  much  movement  as  is  consonant  with  proper 
discipline  is  also  allowed  the  children,  so  as  to  bring  the  feeling  of 
muscular  movement  to  the  aid  of  sense  impressions.  The  fixing 
of  associations  of  this  kind  are  not  only  necessary  but  valuable. 
The  child's  activity  is  thus  utilised  to  the  best  advantage  in  allow- 
ing hirn  to  usfe  his  hands  and  his  eyes  in  investigating  the  things 
supplied  to  him  ;  and  it  must  ever  be  remembered  that  it  is  only 
in  this  way  that  real  sense  knowledge  is  ever  acquired  ;  that  is, 
in  bringing  the  mind  in  contact  with  things  immediately,  Rnd  not 
mediately,  through  the  intervention  of  another  mind,  whether  it 
be  the  teacher's  or  that  of  any  one  else. 

The  objects  presented  should  be  graded  and  then  placed  in 
Juxtaposition  for  compurison  and  contrast.  In  teaching  colour  the 
simple  colours  should  be  first  examined,  then  the  compound,  and 


70 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


finally,  shades  of  the  same  colour.  Striking  differences  should 
always  be  first  dealt  with,  the  less  obvious  ones  following  in 
accordance  with  their  difficulty  of  discrimination.  A  child  will 
learn  to  distinguish  the  elm  and  the  cedar  more  easily  than  the 
oak  and  beech. 

There  must  also  be  a  certain  amount  of  repetition  to  ensure 
familiarity  and  easy  identification.  Without  this  no  habit  of  close 
examination  can  be  formed,  and  no  deep  interest  can  be  aroused. 
We  are  rarely,  if  ever,  deeply  interested  either  in  mere  passing 
objects,  events,  or  acquaintances. 

The  method  of  the  lessons  must  be  such  as  to  cultivate  the 
attention,  and  to  train  it  to  fix  itself  upon  what  is  present.  Con- 
centration is  a  form  of  genius,  and  to  secure  this  the  training 
must  be  such  as  to  enable  the  child  to  turn  its  attention  volun- 
tarily to  the  object  under  consideration. 

The  play  of  the  child  should  be  utilised.  This  is  the  underlying 
principle  of  all  kindergarten  instruction  which  recognises  the  fact 
that  a  child  never  tires  of  a  building  box,  whilst  the  clay  modelling 
of  the  school  is  only  an  educational  application  of  the  mud  pie  of 
the  gutter. 

Observation  should  be  utilised  in  every  possible  branch  of 
school  work.  Models,  diagrams,  pictures,  and  the  various  forms 
of  apparatus  have  all  sprung  into  existence  in  recognition  of  this 
fact.  But  there  must  be  no  Jmrry  in  any  stage  of  the  process,  for 
where  there  is  no  firm  grounding  of  sense  knowledge,  all  after 
knowledge  is  limited.  "  Imagination  will  be  hazy,  thought  loose 
and  inaccurate,  where  the  preliminary  stage  of  perception  has 
been  hurried  over." 

SCHEMES  OF  OBJECT  LESSONS 

From  Circular  369. 

The  following  lessons  deal  with  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  common  life 
and  with  objects  familiar  to  the  children.  The  teacher's  choice  is  not  confined 
to  these  lists ;  other  objects  will  be  accepted  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Inspector.  Any  of  the  objects  may  be  dealt  with  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher 
in  more  than  one  lesson  ;  and  although  they  may  have  been  grouped  for  con- 
venience of  reference,  it  is  not  intended  to  prescribe  any  specified  number  of 
them  for  a  yearly  course.  With  different  treatment  the  same  object  may  be 
adapted  to  more  than  one  standard.  Some  teachers  may  prefer  to  deal  with 
the  same  object  in  successive  years,  or  to  recur  to  it  after  a  year's  interval, 
expanding  the  study  to  suit  the  growing  powers  of  the  scholars.  To  meet  the 
varying  requirements  of  teachers  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  some  cases  the  names 
of  the  objects  have  been  merely  enumerated,  while  in  other  cases  a  few  sugges- 
tions have  been  added  as  to  the  mode  of  treatment. 


OBJECT  LESSONS. 


71 


PLANT  LIFE. 


(a)  The  Study  of  Plants  as  Growing 
Things. 

1.  Grow  an  onion  in  a  bottle  of  water, 
and  note  appearance  of  root  and  stem. 
Make  a  model  in  clay  of  the  various  stages 
of  growth  at  short  intervals. 

2.  Grow  mustard  seed  on  damp  flannel, 
and  note  stages  of  growth. 

3.  Notice  a  few  curious  roots. 

(i)  The  Carrot.— Cut  off  the  top  of  one 
and  grow  it  in  a  saucer  of  water. 
Contrast  the  root  of  a  daisy  (fibrous). 

(2)  Roots  which  lyfl//;.— Strawberry  or 
strayberry. 

(3)  Violet  Root. 

(4)  Contrast  root  of  Iris  and  Solomon's 
Seal  in  their  modes  of  extension. 

4.  Stem. — Count  the  rings  in  a  trunk  that 
has  been  felled.  Rings,  how  produced  :  the 
record  of  wet  or  dry  seasons. 

Climbing  Stems.  Ivy. — Train  bindweed 
up  a  stick,  and  note  that  it  turns  to 
the  right.  If  you  unwind  it  and 
force  it  the  other  way  (to  the  left), 
note  how  it  resumes  its  old  direction 
again,  holding  the  stick  with  one  of 
its  leaf  stalks  to  get  a  purchase  for 
the  change. 

5.  Simple  experiments  to  show  effect  of 
light  on  (i)  leaves,  and  (2)  roots.  Celery; 
blanching. 

6.  Leaves  of  deciduous  trees  contrasted 
with  leaves  of  evergreens.  Contrast  leaves 
of  holly,  ivy,  and  box  with  leaves  of  oak, 
elm,  and  beech. 

Note  autumn  tints.  Collect  and  press 
leaves  of  various  colours  in  autumn. 

7.  Buds.—heaii  buds  and  flower  buds. 
Parts  of  a  flower. 

8.  /'VKtY-s.— Different  kinds. 

(6)  Blossoms,  Fruits,  Seeds,  and 
Leaves. 
Parts  of  a  Rower. 
Flowers  of  curious  shape. 


Pea  blossom.  • 

Insects  and  flowers. 
Colours  of  flowers  and  insects. 
Fruits. — How  seeds  are  scattered. 
Shooting  seeds. 
Flying  seeds. 

Curious  flowers,  e.g.,  primrose,  compound 
flower  (daisy),  water  lily. 
Leaves.— Shape,  veining,  arrangement. 
Flowers  as  supplying — 
(i)  Weather  glass. 

(2)  Clock. 

(3)  Calendar. 

(c)  How  Plants  are  Adapted  to  their 
Surroundings. 

A  bunch  of  spring  flowers  (according  to 
time  of  year). 

A  bunch  of  summer  flowers  (according  to 
time  of  year). 

A  bunch  of  autumn  flowers  (according  to 
time  of  year). 

Flowers  and  the  soil. — Bog  plants. 

Riverside  plants. 

Plants  that  grow  in  running  water. 

Plants  that  grow  in  still  water. 

Meadow  plants. 

Plants  of  the  heath  and  moor. 

Plants  of  the  hills. 

Plants  of  the  wood. 

Plants  of  the  sea  coast  and  salt  marshes. 

Sundew  and  flesh-eating  plants. 

Ferns. 

The  Spores  of  Ferns. — Grow  some  spores 
in  a  pan  under  glass  and  watch  growth  and 
development  of  fern.  Contrast  with  growth 
of  mustard  from  seed. 

Mosses. 

Lichens. 

Funguses. 

Simple  experiments  in  manuring  plants. 

How  plants  help  or  hinder  each  other's 
growth. 

Parasites. — Mistletoe. 

Plants  which  help  or  injure  man. 


II.  ANIMAL  LIFE. 


(a)  The  Cat  (compare  with  dog). — Eyes, 
rough  dry  tongue,  soft  pads  and  sharp 
claws,  teeth,  method  of  holding  prey, 
drinking,  covering  of  fur,  whiskers,  tail. 

The  Cow  (compare  with  sheep  and  goat). 
— How  she  takes  her  food,  teeth,  chewing, 
milk  (cheese  and  butter),  tail,  hoofs,  cover- 
ing, ears,  horns,  nose. 

The  Horse  (compare  with  donkey). — 
Covering,  teeth,  hoofs,  tail,  mane. 

The  Rabbit  (compare  with  hare). — Teeth, 
legs,  feet,  claws,  covering,  tail,  whiskers, 
ears,  eyes. 

The  Mouse  (compare  with  rat  and  water 
rat). — Teeth,  paws,  tail,  whiskers,  eyes, 
ears. 

A  Fish. — How  fitted  to  live  in  water, 
weight,  shape,  covering,  temperature, 
movements. 

A  Plaice  (compare  with  herring). — Flat, 
eyes  on  one  side  of  head,  gills,  movements. 


Animals  which  sleep  in  winter. — Exam- 
ples :  Squirrel,  dormouse,  common  snake, 
frog,  toad,  snail,  slug.  Preparation  made 
for  sleep. 

(b)  Mole. — Shape,  snout,  teeth,  paws, 
claws,  eyes,  ears,  fur,  food. 

Hedgehog. — Covering  of  spines,  how  it 
rolls  itself  into  a  ball  and  why,  head,  teeth, 
food. 

Common  Snake  (compare  with  viper). — 
Shape,  covering,  teeth,  how  it  moves,  how 
it  swallows  its  prey. 

Frog  (compare  with  toad  and  newt). — 
Movements,  capture  of  prey,  breathing, 
winter  quarters. 

Garden  Snail  (compare  with  slug). — Shell, 
mantle,  head,  horns,  eyes,  food,  preparation 
for  winter  sleep. 

Plarth  Worm.— Shape,  rings,  locomotion, 
food,  usefulness. 

Spider  (contrast  with  bee). — Shape,  seg- 


72 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


ments,  legs,  eyes,  jaws,   spinnerets,  web, 
breathing  organs. 

'(c)  Paws  and  Claws  and  their  uses. — Cat, 
dog,  rabbit,  mouse,  mole,  frog. 

Tails  and  their  uses. — Horse,  cow,  dog, 
donkey,  cat,  monkey,  harvest  mouse. 

Tongues  and  their  uses. — Cat,  dog,  cow, 
woodpecker,  frogs. 

Teeth  and   their    uses. — Man,   cat,   cow. 


horse,   rabbit,   snake,   fangs 
snakes. 


Hair,  Fur,  Wool  and  their  uses.— C&t, 
mole,  dog,  sheep,  fox. 

Beaks  of  Birds  and  their  uses. — Duck, 
fowl,  parrot,  sparrow,  goat  sucker,  heron. 

Feet  of  Birds  and  their  uses. — Duck,  fowl, 
swift,  owl,  etc. 

Insects. — Examples:  Bee,  beetle,  butter- 
fly, cockroach,  silkworm.  Insect  develop- 
ment, legs,  wings,  segments,  mouth,  breath- 


of  poisonous    ing  apparatus,  ovipositors. 


Ill,  THE  SKY,  THE  AIR,  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  LAND,  AND  WATER. 


(a)  The  Sky. 

Sunrise,  Noon,  and  Sunset. — (Note  the 
object  over  which  the  sun  is  seen  to  rise 
from  month  to  month.  Note  sun's  position 
at  noon,  and  its  varying  height  above  the 
horizon.) 

Shadow. — (Note,  by  aid  of  a  spike  erect 
on  a  flat  disc,  the  varying  length  of  the 
shadow  at  noon.  Study  the  shadows  of 
objects,  variation  in  sharpness  and  depth.) 

Moon. — (Note  the  changes.  Draw  the 
shape  from  week  to  week.) 

A  few  of  the  Brightest  Constellations. — 
(Make  diagrams  on  square  ruled  paper  from 
a  study  of  the  sky  itself.  Great  Bear  and 
Pole  Star,  Lyre  and  Vega,  Cassiopeia.) 

Planets. — (Note  any  planet  visible  when 
the  lesson  is  given.  Mark  its  position  on 
square  ruled  paper  for  a  few  weeks.) 

Varying  length  of  Day  and  Night. 

(6)  The  Air. 

Wind. — Varying  direction.  (Note  and 
keep  record  of  the  direction  of  the  wind 
from  day  to  day.) 

Warmer  and  colder  winds  ;  rainy  and  dry 
winds. 

Moisture  in  the  air  shown  by  seaweed ; 
string  (changing  tension). 

Wet  cloth  dries  in  the  wind  (water  turns 
to  vapour). 

Vapour  turns  to  water.  (Breathing  on 
slate.     Clouds  on  hills.     Evening  mists.) 

Clouds  in  the  sky.  Three  chief  kinds: 
"  Heaps,"  "  beds,"  "  feathers". 

Rain. — (Note  size  of  drops.  Raindrops 
on  dust  form  little  balls.  Note  effect  of 
heavy  rain  in  tearing  up  roads.  Note  th6 
channels  so  made,  and  the  arrangement 
of  the  sand  and  pebbles  washed  to  a  dis- 
tance.) 

Rainbow. — (Note  the  succession  of  col- 
ours. Note  position  of  the  sun  behind 
observer  and  of  the  bow  where  the  shower 
of  rain  is  falling.  Note  that  height  of  arch 
changes.  When  is  it  higher  and  when 
lower?) 

Rainbow  colours  on  shells,  filrn  of  tar, 
etc.,  feathers  of  birds. 

Dew. — (Note  when  formed.  Cloudless 
weather.     On  what  does  it  lie  thickest  ?) 

Hoar  frost. 

Snow. — (Note  size  of  flakes.  Movement 
of  flakes  in  the  air  as  they  fall.  Snowdrift. 
Snow  squeezed  into  ice.) 


Hail. — (Note  when  it  falls.  Examine 
hailstones.  Is  the  hail  accompanied  by 
thunder  ?) 

Thunder  and  Lightning. 

(c)  The  Surface  of  the  Land. 

Level  or  Sloping. — Simple  way  of  measur- 
ing slope.  Height  of  school  and  neighbour- 
ing hilltops  above  sea  level. 

Flow  of  Water  over  the  Land. — Neigh- 
bouring stream  or  streams.  Water  part- 
ings. 

The  river  basin  in  which  the  school  is 
situated. 

Construct  a  model  fountain  and  make 
simple  observations  on  the  pressure  of 
water.  Milldam.  A  head  of  water.  Notion 
of  falling  water  as  a  motor. 

Soils. — Clay,  sand,  slate,  granite,  chalk, 
quarries  near  school,  gravel  pits,  clay  pits, 
brick  works.  (Note  how  the  rocks  lie,  in 
layers  or  in  masses  without  structure.) 

Stones  in  the  brook,  water-worn  ;  pebbles 
on  beach,  rounded ;  pebbles  in  gravel  pit, 
often  with  sharp  edges,  perhaps  ice-borne. 

Difference  between  sand  and  mud. 

Crumbling  Rocks. — Effect  of  frost  on 
damp  rocks. 

Caves  by  the  sea  formed  by  the  waves. 
Caves  inland  formed  by  rain  dissolving 
limestone  ;  stalactites.  (A  lesson  for  schools 
in  limestone  regions  or  near  rocky  coasts.) 

Building  Stone. — Marble,  slate,  bath- 
stone,  sandstone,  etc. 

In  marble,  note  shells,  etc.  Note  plants 
in  coal. 

Volcanic  Rocks. — Lava,  brimstone,  pu- 
mice stone,  basalt  or  whinstone.  (Accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  district.) 

Rock  Salt. — Crystals  of  salt.  Salt  in  sea 
water.     Mineral  in  solution. 

Hard  and  Soft  Water. — Rain  water  com- 
pared with  streams  from  chalk  or  lime- 
stone. Leavings  after  evaporation.  Fur 
in  kettles.     Softening  hard  water. 

(In  certain  districts)  other  minerals  in 
solution  :  Sulphur  wells,  iron  springs,  medi- 
cinal waters. 

Mortar  and  Cement.— (Slake  lime  and 
make  mortar;  note  the  heat,  etc.) 

Surface  Soils. — Crumbled  rocks.  Water- 
borne  sand  and  mud.  Vegetable  mould 
and  earthworms. 

Vegetation  and  Cultivation.— Forest, 
moor  and  heath,  heathers. 

Hedgerow  Trees. — Elms,  ashes. 


OBJECT  LESSONS. 


73 


Trees  of  the  Forest.— Oak,  birch,  beech. 
Evergreen  trees :  Pines  and  firs. 

Evergreen  Plants  and  Shrubs. — Ivy, 
holly,  box.  Contrast  evergreen  and  de- 
ciduous leaves.  (Note  changes  at  fall  of 
leaf.     Autumn  tints.     Press  specimens.) 

Riverside  Trees. — Willows,  poplars,  as- 
pens. 

Hill  Pastures  and  Meadows. — Turf  on  the 
downs  and  hay  in  the  valleys. 

Gardens  and  their  contents.  Garden 
fruits  and  wild  fruits.  Garden  flowers  and 
wild  flowers. 

(d)  Water. 

Standing  Water.— Ponds,  pond  life. 

Springs  and  Running  Water. — Clear 
water  looks  shallower  than  it  is.  Simple 
experiments  in  illustration. 

Study  of  Flow  of  a  Stream. — Where  the 
flow  is  quicker,  (a)  in  the  middle,  (b)  on  one 
side,  outer  and  inner  bend.  Where  the 
bank  is  eaten  away  and  where  sand  is 
spread  out.  Varying  bottom,  deep  pools, 
shallows,  sand  banks.  Confluence  of  tribu- 
tary. Delta.  Measure  the  speed  at  which 
the  water  flows. 

Study  of  Sea  Shore. — Rocky  and  sandy 
coasts.  Soundings.  The  rise  and  fall  of 
the  tide.  Currents.  Drifting  sand.  Effect 
of  frost  on  cliff's.  Breakwaters.  Layers  of 
soil  and  rock  exposed  down  the  side  of  a 
cliff. 

Measure  with  thermometer  the  tempera- 
ture of  (a)  a  spring ;  (b)  a  stream ;  (c)  a 
pond  ;  (d)  the  sea. 

Ice. — Study  hardness,  mode  of  fracture, 
splitting  blocks  with  a  needle.  Does  it 
sink  or  swim  in  water  ?  Easy  to  make  two 
surfaces  of  ice  freeze  together.  Simple 
experiments  with  ice. 

Watch  and  record  behaviour  of  thermo^ 
meter  plunged  in  melting  ice. 

Melt  some  ice  carelullyto  find  out  whether 


it  takes  up  more  or  less  room  than  the  water 
into  which  it  changes.  (Force  a  mass  of  ice 
into  a  lump  of  clay,  and  let  it  melt  there.) 

Freeze  some  water  in  a  bottle,  and  note 

bursting  of  bottle.     Bursting  of  pipes. 

Notes  on  expansion  and  contraction  of 

j  substances  illustrated  by  behaviour  of  water 

!  at    different    temperatures.      Preliminary 

'  notion  of  thermometer. 

I  Watch  cold  spring  water  being  heated  to 
:  boiling  point  in  transparent  glass  vessel. 
j  Note  bubbles  of  air  given  off,  and  as  the 
I  water  is  heated  bubbles  of  steam  rise  from 
j  below.  Observe  force  of  compressed  steam. 
I  Preliminary  notion  of  steam  engine. 
I  Dribble  powdered  alum  into  clear  water. 
I  Hang  thread  in  the  solution,  and  note  the 
formation  of  crystal.  Alum  and  other 
crystals. 

Expose  to  the  air  crystals  of  (i)  salt ;  (2) 
soda.  Note  change.  What  difference  ? 
What  difference  according  to  weather? 
Expose  to  the  air  crystals  of  saltpetre,  and 
note  result. 

Dribble  salt  into  clear  water  and  note 
that  it  dissolves,  quicker  at  first,  then  slower. 
At  last  no  more  is  dissolved.  Place  a  fresh 
egg  in  saturated  solution,  and  afterwards 
transfer  it  to  clear  water. 

One  liquid  is  denser  than  another.  Com- 
pare water  and  mercury.  Things  which 
float  in  mercury  and  sink  in  water. 

Upward  pressure  of  water  on  bodies 
dropped  into  it.  Why  bodies  sink  or  float. 
Why  steel  ships  float.     Why  cork  floats. 

Simple  experiments  in  displacement  of 
water. 

Simple  experiments  in  pressure  of  water 
and  pressure  of  air.  Siphon,  squirt,  pump, 
diving  bell. 
Distillation  of  water.  Filtration. 
Water,  a  combination  of  two  gases. 
Oxygen  and  .  hydrogen.  Simple  experi- 
ments. 


IV.  OBJECT  LESSONS 

(a)  The  water  we  drink. — How  obtained. 

Some  of  the  simpler  properties  of  water. 

River  {or  canal). — According  to  circum- 
stances. 

Boats,  barges,  or  ships,  with  which  chil- 
dren are  familiar.— According  to  circum- 
stances. 

Other  ships,  e.g.,  Atlantic  liners. 

Bricks. — Their  size,  shape,  and  manu- 
facture ;  their  size,  etc.,  to  be  ascertained 
by  children's  measurements. 

Bricklayer's  work.  —  Arrangement  of 
bricks  in  14-inch  wall  and  9-inch  wall, 
shown  with  real  bricks  or  with  small 
wooden  ones ;  mortar,  etc. 

Coal. — Its  simpler  properties. 

Coal. — How  obtained. 

Coal. — How  transported  and  how  used. 

Coal  gas. — It  may  be  made  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  children. 

Gas  works  and  gas  pipes. 

Petroleum. — How  obtained  ;  its  simpler 
properties  and  uses. 

Lamps  and  their  dangers. 


FOR  TOWN  SCHOOLS. 

Common  stones  used  in  building  and  road- 
making. 

Roadmaking  and  paving. 

Quarries  and  quarrymen. 

Railways. — General  sketch. 

Engines  and  carriages. 

The  work  of  railway  men. 

The  park  or  public  garden. — One  or  two 
of  its  more  conspicuous  trees. 

The  park  or  public  (garden. — One  or  two 
of  its  more  conspicuous  plants. 

Comparison  between  calico  and  flannel. 

Cotton  and  its  manufacture. 

Lancashire  and  the  cotton  district. — 
Mills. 

Sheep  clipping  and  rearing. 

The  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire  ;  factories, 
etc. 

(6)  Cart  horse. 

Donkey. 

Sparrow. 

Rat  or  mouse. 

Cat. 

Plants  grown  in  schoolroom. — (Acorn  in 


74 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


glass  of  water ;  mustard  and  cress ;  hya- 
cinth in  water  or  pot ;  fern.) 

Costermonger,  and  what  he  sells. 

Some  common  fruit  sold  in  streets  or 
shops,  e.g.,  pears  and  apples,  strawberries, 
oranges,  cocoanuts. 

Things  seen  in  a  grocer's  window,  e.g., 
tea,  sugar,  coffee,  currants,  and  raisins. 

The  baker  and  his  work. 


The  milkman. 

The  addressing  and  posting  of  a  letter. 
The  postman  and  Post  Office. 
The  sweep  and  his  work. 
Dangers  from  fire,  and  how  they  may  be 
avoided. 

The  fireman  and  fire  engines. 
'Bus  or  tram  drivers. 
The  policeman. 


V.  OBJECT  LESSONS  FOR  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS. 


(a)  The  farmyard. — Its  buildings  and 
their  contents.  Animals  kept  on  a  farm 
and  their  uses.  Necessity  for  cleanliness, 
kindness,  and  suitable  food. 

The  dairy  and  its  contents. — Butter  and 
cheese  making. 

Bees. — Bee  keeping. 

Spring. — Spring  flowers.  Work  in  the 
fields  in  spring.  The  cuckoo  and  swallow. 
Record  date  of  arrival. 

Summer.— D\iier&nt  kinds  of  leaves  and 
fruit.     Work  in  the  fields  in  summer. 

Autumn. — Work  in  the  fields. 

A  mill  and  the  work  of  a  miller. 

Winter. — Frost,  ice,  snow. 

Birds. — Singing  birds,  as  the  thrush  and 
nightingale.  Birds  of  prey,  as  the  hawk. 
Swimming  and  wading  birds,  as  the  duck 
and  heron. 

Wild  animals. — The  fox,  the  hare,  and 
rabbit. 

Minerals. — A  mine.  Three  useful  mine- 
rals. 

The  lessons  on  the  seasons  should  cor- 
respond with  the  actual  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  the  different  operations  explained 
should  be  taken  while  each  is  in  progress. 

Leaves  of  trees  may  be  dried  by  simply 
placing  them  between  sheets  of  paper  and 
pressing  them.  Their  shapes  may  be  used 
for  the  children  to  draw  round  on  paper, 
which  can  afterwards  be  pricked  and  then 
sewn  round. 

'  The  waking  of  Nature; 
the  lengthening  daylight 
in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing;   the  coming   warm 

ib\  Sbrimrtime  -  weather;    birds  singing, 

(b)  springtime,  building  their  nests,  lay- 
ing their  eggs  ;  the  trees 
and  hedges  changing ; 
buds    and    leaves ;     the 

^bloom  on  fruit  trees. 
The  local  wild  flowers  of  spring. — The 
daisy,  primrose,  bluebell. 
Summer  time. 
The  local  wild  flowers  of  summer. 


Autumn. 

The  local  wild  flowers  of  autumn. 

Winter. — The  repose  of  nature. 

The  land.  —  Woodland,  meadowland, 
ploughland,  moorland. 

The  sky. 

A  bird. — Covering,  wings,  beak,  feet, 
motion,  nests,  eggs,  food. 

Local  birds. — Thrush  or  blackbird,  lark, 
robin,  rooks. 

Birds  which  come  for  the  summer. 

Birds  which  come  for  the  winter. 

Local  wild  antwais.— Rabbit,  hare,  fox, 
hedgehog. 

Animals  on  a  farm. 

Our  village. 

The  carrier's  cart. 

The  cottage  garden. 

The  stream  or  river. — Its  banks  ;  the  birds 
and  animals  that  live  near  it. 

A  fish. 

A  plant, 

(c)  The  garden  and  farm  in  the  four  sea- 
sons of  the  year. 

The  weather  and  wind. 

The  soil. — Sunshine,  air,  rain,  frost, 
manure. 

The  farmer's  tools.— The  plough,  drill, 
reaping  machine. 

The  cro/is.— Grass,  corn,  root  crops. 

Wheat. 

The  potato. 

Trees. — Oak,  elm,  apple,  evergreen  trees. 

A  n  insect. 

The  spider  and  his  web. 

The  butterfly.— Colours,  beauty,  history. 

Bees. 

The  farmer's  pests. 

The  farmer's  friends. 

A  pond. 

A  frog. 

A  ramble  in  a  wood,  and  what  may  be 
seen  there. 

The  railway. 

Market  day  in  the  neighbouring  town. 

A  newspaper. 


VI.  OBJECT  LESSONS  IN  THE  SCIENCE  OF  COMMON  THINGS. 


(a)  Water. — How  carried:  jugs,  bottles, 
barrels,  spouts,  funnels.  Wells.  Things 
that  float ;  things  that  sink. 

Solids. — Hard  and  soft,  in  the  room  and 
in  clothing.  Files,  hammer  and  nails, 
buttons. 


Powders. — Flour. 
Pastes. — Paste,  clay,  putty. 
Things  porous. — Bread,  sponge. 
Things  that  melt. — Butter,  tallow,  sealing 
wax,  ice,  snow. 

Water.— Drying    clothes,    breathing    on 


OBJECT  LESSONS. 


75 


slates,  frost  on  pane,  the  boiling  of  the 
kettle,  the  pot  boiling  over. 

Things  that  dissolve. — Sugar,  salt. 

Air. — Bubbles,  pouring  water  through 
funnel  into  empty  bottle.  A  burning  candle. 
Fans,  blowing  feathers,  paper  windmills. 

Forms  of  strem^th. — The  floor,  joists,  and 
boards.  Wooden  bridges.  Steps  and 
stairs. 

Things  that  stretch. — Elastic  bands. 

Things  that  bend. — Bow  and  arrows,  cord, 
ropes. 

Machines.— Tops,  roller  for  pastry,  for 
garden,  perambulator. 

Movements.— W Bilking,  running,  leaping, 
creeping,  crawling. 

Musical  toys. — Harmonicon,  bell. 

(6)  W^a^er.— Pipes,  taps,  the  fountain, 
canals,  rafts,  boats,  anchors. 

Solids. — Teeth,  nails,  and  claws,  sand- 
paper, pins,  needles,  awl,  gimlet,  hook  and 
eye. 

Powders. — Chalk,  pencil. 

Pastes. — Mud  in  streets,  brickmaking. 

Things  porous.— Brick,  chalk,  springs  of 
water. 

Things  that  melt. — Candlemaking,  icicles. 

Water. — Manufacture  of  salt  from  brine. 
Raindrops,  hail,  spray,  water  dust,  the 
cloud. 

Things  that  dissolve. — Manufacture  of 
sugar. 

Air. — The  chimney,  draughts,  waves  and 


breakers,  winged  seeds,  shuttlecock,  arrow, 
and  kite. 

Forms  of  strength. — The  ceiling,  the  arch, 
ladders. 

Things  that  stretch.— A  football. 

Things  that  bend. — Cart  springs,  paper 
clips,  spider's  web. 

Machines. — Hoop,  fly-wheel  of  sewing 
machine,  mangle,  waggon,  bicycle. 

Movements. — Swimming. 

Musical  toys. — Musical  box,  drum. 

(c)  Water. — Siphon,  pump,  oil,  cream. 

Solids. — Hinges,  tires,  and  axles.  The 
grindstone.     Screws  and  screw-drivers. 

Powders. — Black  lead. 

Pastes. — Pottery. 

Things  porous. — Blotting  paper,  towels, 
wick,  earth. 

Things  that  melt. — Lead,  iron. 

Water. — Salt  lakes.  Distillation  of  water. 
Clouds  and  rain. 

Things  that  dissolve. — Crystals,  hard 
water,  varnishes. 

A  ir. — The  pop-gun,  the  fire  engine,  winds, 
a  sailing  ship. 

Forms  of  strength. — The  roof,  railway 
bridges,  cranes. 

Things  that  bend. — Clock  spring,  chains. 

Machines. — The  loom,  threshing  machine, 
rolling  iron  rails,  coining. 

Movements. — Flying. 

Musical  toys. — Tin  whistle,  sounds  from 
stretched  cord. 


Vn.  MEASURING,  WEIGHING,  AND  TESTING. 


A  two-foot  rule. 
Measurements  (in  inches  only). 


— first  by  eye,  then  with  rule.  Easy  mea- 
surements of  a  square — first  by  eye,  then 
with  rule. 

Easy  measurements  of  rectangles. 

The  wire-gauge. 

Callipers. 

Scales  and  weights. — Weighing  of  com- 
mon objects — first  by  hand,  then  with 
scales  ;  weight  in  ounces  only. 

Weighing  letters. 

Plumb  line. 

spirit  level. 

Steam. — Observations  on  boiling  water  ; 
condensation  of  steam,  etc. 

Mercury. — Weight  of;  cf.  drop  of  mer- 
cury and  drop  of  water ;  effect  of  heat  on 
mercury. 


I      Alcohol. — Effect  of  heat  on  it;  its  evapo- 
Oflength  I  ration. 


Thermometer. — Manufacture,  uses,  read- 
ings in  ice,  in  boiling  water,  under  the 
tongue,  in  schoolroom. 

A  candle. — Its  composition,  the  wick. 

Candle  under  bell-jar  over  water ;  candle 
in  narrow-necked  bottle. 

Chalk. — Where  found  ;  its  origin. 

Chalk. — Its  treatment  with  acid. 

Chalk. — Its  reduction  to  quicklime  with 
blow-pipe ;  lime  water. 

Sugar  heated  in  test  tube ;  wood  heated 
in  test  tube. 

Sulphur  heated  in  test  tube;  lead  heated 
in  test  tube. 

Magnet  and  iron  filings. 

The  compass. 


Two  illustrative  lessons  now  follow  selected  from  these 
schemes.  That  on  the  Sundew  illustrates  the  special  form 
of  nutrition  of  some  plants,  and  should  follow  lessons  which 
have  dealt  with  the  general  form.  The  lesson  is  drawn  to 
suit  a  higher  standard,  whilst  that  on  the  Sponge  is  for  a  young 
class. 


76  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

LESSON  ON  SUNDEW  AND  FLESH-EATING  PLANTS. 


Information. 


I.  Introduction. 

1.  Elements  necessary  to  plant  nutrition  : 
C,  H,  O,  N,  etc. 

2.  Uses. — C,  O,  and  H,  essential  constit- 
uents of  organic  compounds ;  e.g.,  starch, 
sugar.  N  used  in  making  proteid  matter 
(protoplasm). 

3.  Origin. — C  from  CO 2  in  atmosphere. 
Others  from  the  soil.  H  and  O  in  the  form 
of  water,  etc.  N  in  the  form  of  nitrates 
and  ammonia  salts. 

II.  I.  Some  plants  have  no  chlorophyll 
(as  fungi),  and  so  cannot  assimilate.  They 
must  look  for  their  food  stuff  ready  made, 
and  are  either  parasites  or  they  feed  on 
decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter. 

2.  Other  plants  grow  in  marshy  soils  or 
in  running  water  soils  from  which  the  essen- 
tial N  salts  have  been  washed  away.  These 
again  have  to  look  for  other  sources  for 
their  food,  and  are  mainly  insectivorous. 
They  employ  various  devices  for  alluring 
and  catching  insects. 

III.  Sundew. 

1.  Distribution. — Three  British  species, 
the  round-leaved  being  most  common. 
Found  in  most  sphagnum  bogs,  and  so  is 
most  frequent  in  the  north,  but  also  occurs 
frequently  around  London. 

2.  Description. — Little  root;  small  rosette 
of  8-10  leaves  of  reddish  tint  and  spoon 
shaped  ;  numerous  glandular  hairs,  the  lar- 
gest round  the  margin.  Flowers  lipped  and 
of  a  purple  colour. 

3.  Food. — (a)  In  a  non-irritant  condition 
the  tentacles  are  extended  outwards,  and  in 
a  horizontal  position.  They  are  tipped 
with  a  shining  secretion  which  sparkles  in 
the  sunlight,  and  so  serves  to  attract  insects. 

(6)  Fly  settles  on  leaf,  and  is  held  by  the 
secretion.  The  glandular  hairs  slowly  bend 
over  so  as  to  enclose  it,  and  in  about  ten 
minutes  the  fly  dies.  In  a  few  hours  all  the 
hairs  are  bent  over  in  such  a  way  that  the 
glands  lie  exactly  on  the  body,  even  if  the 
fly  be  on  the  margin  of  the  leaf.  In  10-20 
hours  the  leaf  itself  has  curved  over  so  as 
to  enclose  the  fly.  The  secretion  now 
poured  out  becomes  acid,  and  contains  a 
ferment  allied  to  pepsin.  The  nitrogenous 
matter  in  the  body  of  the  insect  is  thus  ex- 
tracted and  absorbed  by  the  leaf. 

Results. — (i)  Movement  of  the  glandular 
hairs  and  of  margin. 

(2)  Chemical  action. 

lY.  Butterwort.— Another  of  our  native 
carnivorous  plants.  Bears  a  rosette  of 
about  10  leaves ;  long,  tongue-shaped, 
yellowish,  and  covered  with  a  shiny  sub- 
stance. Flies  are  held  by  this  till  the  leaf 
rolls  on  to  the  midrib  so  as  to  enclose  them. 

Y.  Yenus  Fly  Trap.— Closely  allied  to 
our  Sundew.  Occurs  on  marshy  moors  of 
the  two  Carolinas.     Lamina  of  leaf  divided 


Teaching  Hints. 


Apparatus. — A  plant  or  two  of  sundew 
growing  in  a  saucer  of  water  under  a  bell 
jar ;  pressed  dried  leaf  of  Venus  fly-trap  in 
the  two  positions  ;  a  solution  of  the  ferment 
obtained  from  leaves  of  sundew,  butterwort, 
etc.,  or,  in  absence  of  this,  a  little  pepsin 
to  show  its  action  on  fibrin,  etc. 

1.  All  these  facts  to  be  elicited  by  ques- 
tions recapitulating  previous  lessons. 

II.  Show  a  species  of  fungi.  Ask  how 
they  know  it  does  not  assimilate.  No 
chlorophyll. 

Take  two  glass  vessels  containing  water. 
In  the  one  place  some  ammonium  chloride, 
and  in  the  other  some  saltpetre.  Stir,  and 
they  dissolve  rapidly. 

Show  plant  in  saucer  of  water  under  bell 
jar. 

III.  I.  Tell  this. 

2.  All  this  will  be  learned  from  their  ob- 
servation of  the  specimen  plant. 

3.  (a)   Show  the  specimen  grown  in  the 

school ;    it  will  be  in  a  non-irritant 
condition. 
(b)  The  change  in  the  position  of  the 
hairs  can  be  observed. 

One  leaf  ought  to  have  been  fed  the  pre- 
vious day,  and  its  position  could  then  be 
compared  with  the  others.  Then  test  the 
two  leaves  with  litmus  paper. 

This  ferment  can  bt  extracted  from  the 
leaves  by  means  of  glycerine,  and  it  will 
then  digest  fibrin.  This  should  be  com- 
pared with  the  action  of  pepsin  on  food  in 
the  stomach.  (The  action  of  pepsin  on  a 
bit  of  meat  can  easily  be  shown  in  illustra- 
tion.) 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  stimulus  produces 
the  results  opposite. 

The  plant  can  be  cultivated  easily  enough 
in  a  saucer  under  a  bell  jar,  and  will  pro- 
duce seeds ;  but  these  are  neither  so  many, 
nor  give  rise  to  such  vigorous  seedlings, 
as  if  the  parent  plant  be  fed  on  meat  or 
flies. 

lY.  Show  specimen,  if  possible;  if  not, 
picture  of  one.  These  facts  will  then  be 
learned  from  observation. 

The  acid  from  the  ferment  is  in  an  irri- 
tant condition,  and  will  curdle  milk. 

Y.  Show  a  specimen,  and  have  these 
facts  learned  from  observation. 

Touch  the  bristles,  not  gently,  and  note 
result.  The  two  halves  of  leaf  come  to- 
gether with  great  rapidity,  and  the  stiff 
outgrowths  fold  over  and  interlock  like 
fingers,  thus  preventing  escape. 

YI.  A  visit  to  Kew  or  kindred  places  will 
be  necessary  to  see  this  plant. 

Show  a  picture  (good  ones  are  done  by 
the  publishers),  and  let  as  much  of  the  in- 
formation as  possible  be  learned  from  an 
examination  of  the  picture. 

What  is  the  function  of  the  downward 


OBJECT  LESSONS.  77 

LESSON  ON  SUNDEW  AND  FLESH-EATING  PLANTS— continued. 


Information. 


into  two  deeply  segmented  halves,  con- 
nected by  the  midrib.  On  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  leaf  are  half  a  dozen  bristles. 
On  the  edges  of  the  leaves  are  some  stiff 
outgrowths. 

YL  Pitcher  Plant.— Found  in  Mada- 
gascar and  Ceylon ;  a  climbing  plant.  At 
the  ends  of  the  tendrils  are  pitcher-like 
growths,  and  these  pitchers  are  protected 
with  lids.  They  have  various  devices  for 
alluring  insects,  such  as  honey  glands.  In 
some  species  the  interior  of  the  pitcher  is 
so  smooth  that  the  insect  cannot  get  foot- 
hold, and  so  falls  into  the  liquid  at  the  bot- 
tom. In  other  species  there  are  a  number 
of  hairs  pointing  downwards.  When  an 
insect  falls  in,  copious  secretions  are  poured 
forth. 


Teaching  Hints. 


hairs? — They  prevent  the  insect  gietting 
out. 

What  is  the  effect  of  the  secretions? — 
They  convert  the  fly  into  a  kind  of  soup 
which  is  absorbed  by  the  plant. 

Recapitulate. 


NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  A  SPONGE. 

Time— Thirty  minutes.     C/ass— Standard  I. 

Apparatus— Sponge,   saucer  and  water,   india  rubber,   piece   of  flannel,   piece   of 
calico,  a  stone,  and  a  lens. 

Aim— To  show  the  suitability  of  a  sponge  for  its  uses. 


Matter. 


I.  Introduction. 
IL  Its  Uses. 

1.  For  home  purposes: — 
(a)  To  wash  our  faces. 
(6)  For  sponge  baths. 
(c)  To  clean  glass,  etc. 

2.  For  school  purposes  : — 

(a)  To  clean  slates. 

(b)  To  clean  swing  slate  or 
B.B. 

III.  Properties. 

1.  Light. 

2.  Soft. 

3.  Compressible. 

4.  Very  elastic. 

5.  Porous. 

6.  Absorbent. 

7.  Tough. 


Method. 


I.  Show  a  piece  of  sponge.  Ask  chil- 
dren to  name  it. 

II.  All  this  information  should  be  ob- 
tained from  the  children  : — 

1.  (a)  )  By  questioning,  and  by  appealing 
\b)  vto  their  experience.  All  this  should 
(c)  )  hedone  in  a.  conversational  method. 

2.  Show  a  small  slate  sponge  and  a  large 
one  for  the  swing  slate  or  B.B.  Ask  chil- 
dren to  name  their  uses. 

III.  I  and  2.  Let  the  class  handle  it ;  it  is 
soft.  Let  them  weigh  it  in  their  hands ;  it 
is  light.  Again,  let  the  children  take  a 
stone  in  one  hand  and  the  sponge  in  the 
other ;  the  sponge  is  very  light.  Place  it 
in  the  saucer  of  water;  it  floats.  Why? 
Because  it  is  light.  Rub  it  against  the 
face  ;  it  is  pleasant.  Why  ?  Because  it  is 
soft ;  hence  suitable  for  washing.  Is  the 
stone  suitable  ?  No ;  because  hard  and 
painful  to  the  skin. 

3.  \  Let  the  class  look  at  the  sponge.     It 

4.  (is   full   of  holes.      Tell  the  class  (if 

5.  ("necessary)  that  these  are  called  pores, 

6.  )  and  the  sponge  is  said  to  be  porous. 
Place  it  in  the  saucer  of  water.  It  sucks  up 
the  water.  Where  is  the  water?  In  the 
holes.  Compare  with  a  piece  oi  flannel  and 
a  piece  of  calico.  Both  are  porous,  but  not 
to  the  same  extent.  Refer  to  the  pores  of 
the  skin.  Place  a  magnifying  glass  over 
their  hands  and  call  attention  to  the  pores. 


78  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  A  SPONGE— continued. 


Matter. 


IV.  Natural  History. 

An  animal  substance  found 
in  the  sea  and  in  fresh  water. 
Men  get  it  by  diving  deep  into 
the  sea.  Some  of  the  commoner 
kinds  are  dredged  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  Some  are 
hard  like  flints,  and  are  there- 
fore of  no  use. 


Method. 


Take  the  sponge  out  of  the  water ;  squeeze 
it ;  call  attention  to  its  size.  Open  the 
hand.  It  resumes  its  former  size  again, 
hence  it  is  like  india  rubber  ;  elastic.  Illus- 
trate with  a  piece  of  india  rubber.  Then 
note  we  can  squeeze  out  the  dirty  water, 
and  it  is  then  ready  to  take  up  fresh  clean 
water,  hence  it  is  suitable  for  washing. 

7.  Let  the  class  pull  it.  It  does  not  tear 
easily.  Show  a  piece  of  leather,  and  let 
the  class  pull  that.  It  is  tough.  Yet  we 
do  not  wash  with  leather  because  it  is  hard 
and  not  porous  enough.  Then  anything 
suitable  for  washing  must  be  porous,  soft, 
and  elastic. 

IV.  Tell  this.  Show  picture  in  illustra- 
tion. Explain  "dredged".  Refer  to  the 
Thames  dredgers.  Show  a  hard  specimen 
if  possible.     Ask  why  useless. 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Make  a  list  of  twenty  lessons  on  familiar  animals,  and  explain  the  order  in 
which  you  have  arranged  them. 

2. — Name  the  qualities  you  would  select  in  giving  an  object  lesson  to  infants  on 
"  steel,"  and  state  the  experiments  or  illustrations  by  which  you  would  elicit  the  ideas, 
before  giving  the  names  of  the  qualities. 

3. — Detail  the  apparatus  required  for  lessons  on  a  coal  mine  and  on  the  seasons,  and 
draw  the  diagrams  required  for  the  latter. 

4. — Point  out  some  of  the  uses  of  object  lessons  in  infant  schools,  and  illustrate  your 
answers  by  short  notes  of  a  lesson  on  the  "  whale  "  or  on  "  iron  ". 

5. — Write  out  brief  notes  of  a  lesson  on  "  glass,"  and  explain  your  purpose  in 
teaching  the  names  of  its  qualities. 

6. — Make  out  a  list  of  lessons  on  "  common  things,"  illustrative  of  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  give  brief  heads  of  one  of  such  lessons. 

7. — What  is  the  advantage  to  young  children  of  having  lessons  on  such  subjects  as 
a  spider,  wool,  sugar  ?  Enumerate  the  qualities  or  peculiarities  in  each  case  to  which 
you  would  specially  direct  their  attention. 

8. — In  giving  an  object  lesson,  what  is  the  aim  of  the  teacher  in  using  terms  denot- 
ing the  qualities  of  the  object  ?     What  is  meant  by  vulgar  and  pedantic  language  ? 

9. — What  sort  of  lessons  do  you  understand  to  be  intended  by  "  phenomena  of 
nature  and  of  common  life  "  ?  Make  a  list  of  twelve  such  lessons  adapted  for  children  in 
the  First  Standard. 

10. — What  sort  of  a  sketch  should  appear  on  the  B.B.  at  the  end  of  a  collective 
lesson  on  one  of  these  subjects :  (a)  Iron ;  (6)  Corn ;  (c)  The  Ocean ;  and  what  is  the 
best  use  to  make  of  such  a  sketch  when  it  is  written  ? 

II. — Show  what  is  the  proper  use  of  the  B.B.  as  an  aid  to  recapitulation.  Give  a 
specimen  of  the  sketch  which  should  appear  on  the  board  at  the  end  of  an  object 
lesson. 

12. — Sketch  out  a  course  of  lessons  on  common  objects,  or  on  the  phenomena  of 
daily  life,  suitable  for  children  in  Standards  I.,  II.,  and  III. 

13.— What  is  an  object  lesson?  Show  that  mere  sight  is  not  necessarily  know- 
ledge. 


79 


CHAPTER  VII. 
KINDERGARTEN. 

I.  "What  it  is. — Kindergarten  is  an  educative  system  of  play- 
productive  play — with  a  purpose.  There  is  little  direct  instruction 
in  it,  but  the  children  are  amused,  interested,  and  taught  to  observe, 
think,  and  manipulate  through  the  medium  of  toys  (gifts)  and 
play  (occupations).  It  strives  to  develop  every  faculty  a  child 
possesses ;  to  develop  power,  rather  than  to  store  knowledge ;  to 
enable  the  child  to  educate  itself,  and  to  generate  the  desire  to  do 
this. 

U.  Its  Advantages. —It  possesses  advantages  belonging  to 
each  branch  of  education— intellectual,  physical,  and  moral. 

1.  Intellectual  Advantages. — It  aims  to  utilise  a  child's 
natural  promptings,  to  produce  accuracy  as  a  habit,  to  cultivate 
observation,  to  teach  the  child  to  think,  to  make  it  skilful,  and  to 
produce  pleasure  through  a  right  use  of  its  budding  intellectual 
powers. 

2.  Physical  Advantages. — The  rhythmical  movements,  the 
dancing,  the  singing,  and  the  games,  are  all  physically  beneficial. 
The  child's  natural  love  of  activity,  curiosity,  and  play  is  noted 
and  utilised.  The  health  is  improved,  and  consequently  the  mind 
is  strengthened.  The  limbs  are  exercised  and  developed,  whilst 
the  eye  and  the  ear  are  brought  into  disciplined  use. 

3.  Moral  Advantages. — Lessons  of  care,  neatness,  accuracy, 
order,  love  of  work,  kindness,  truthfulness,  obedience,  and  the 
beautiful,  both  in  nature  and  in  human  conduct,  are  all  inculcated. 
Furthermore,  it  is  the  proper  nursery  of  that  improved  objective 
teaching  which  is  now  so  materially  leavening  our  educational 
system  by  increased  Object  Lessons,  by  Drawing,  by  various 
forms  of  Manual  Instruction,  and  by  Technical  Education. 

Froebel's  Gifts.  I.  Play. — These  were  a  species  of  play  thing 
out  of  which  the  children  constructed  various  objects  by  way  of 


8o 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


instructive  amusement.  The  games  were  accompanied  by  songs 
and  dancing,  both  of  which  are  valuable  adjuncts  to  the  system. 
The  gifts  were  really  sedentary  games  enlightened  by  dance  and 
song,  and  his  motto  was :  "  Let  us  live  for  our  children  ". 

H.  Song.— These  were  peculiarly  suited  to  child  life.  They 
dealt  with  incidents  of  child  life,  or  incidents  of  the  material 
world  around  them  which  came  within  the  comprehension  of 
child  life.  Some  little  story  was  embodied  of  the  pet  animal 
kingdom,  or  kindred  things,  and  mimicry  or  work  of  some  kind 
generally  accompanied  the  song. 

m.  Dance. — These  movements  were  a  great  improvement 
upon  the  ordinary  stiff  semi-military  movements  of  school  drill. 
Various  actions  were  performed  as  in  musical  drill.  A  great 
variety  of  attitudes  were  required,  and  so  the  body  was  made 
lithe  and  strong.  The  aesthetic  and  disciplinary  effects  of  the 
movements  were  also  very  important,  as  the  children  got  good 
ideas  of  regularity  and  harmony. 

IV.  Gifts. — There  are  seven  of  these  due  to  Froebel,  but  the 
system  has  been  largely  expanded  and  developed  by  others. 

7.  First  Gift.    The  Ball. 

(a)  Materials.— It  consists  of  a  number  of  balls  (worsted)  all  of  the  same  size 
and  of  different  colours.  To  each  ball  a  string  is  attached,  by  which  the  ball 
may  be  suspended.     The  colours  are  usually  half  primary  and  half  secondary. 

{d)  Aim. 

1.  To     train      the     eye     in 
colours. 

2.  To  exercise   the    limbs    in 
various  ways. 

3.  To   teach    directions    right 
and  left. 

4.  To  teach   properties   gene- 
rally (hard,  soft,  etc.). 

The  ball  or  sphere  is  chosen 
for  the  first  gift  on  account 
of  its  simplicity  of  form ; 
there  are  no  angles  and  no 
differing  dimensions.  The 
impression  made  by  a 
sphere  is  a  single  one  and 
the  view  is  always  the 
same. 

{c)  The  Game.  —  Various 
movements  are  made  with  the 
ball.  It  is  raised  and  lowered ; 
moved  to  the  right  and  then  to 
the  left ;  passed  from  one  hand 
to  the  other  ;  from  one  child  to  the  other.  The  rate  oK  movement  also  varies, 
being  sometimes  quick  and  sometimer  slow,  accordi  ng  to  the  word  of  com- 
mand.    These  orders  must  be  smartly,  neatly,  and  si  multaneously  executed. 


KINDERGARTEN. 


8i 


(d)  Its  Advantages. 

1.  The  four  mentioned  under  the  head  of  Aim. 

2.  Fellowship.^The  children  act  together,  and  so  develop  a  sense  of  fellow- 

ship. 

3.  Pleasurable  Association. — The  teacher  is  gentle,  and  enforces  gentleness 

from  the  children.  This  sets  up  an  association  between  play  and  work, 
between  teacher  and  class,  which  is  pleasurable. 

4.  Selfishness  Repressed. — The  class  has  to  act  together.     No  child  does 

what  it  likes,  although  it  may  like  what  it  does.  The  training  of  the 
game  is  for  all,  not  for  one.  Class  sympathy  is  invoked,  emulation  is 
stimulated,  but  there  is  no  competition  for  prizes. 

5.  Temper. — Children  like  working  together.     The  solitary  task  is  rarely 

liked  by  a  young  child,  and  impotent  effort  is  both  discouraging  and 
souring.     Class  action  avoids  this. 

2.  Second  Gift. 

(a)  Materials. — This  gift  consists  of  the  sphere,  the  cylinder,  and  the  cube. 
(d)  Aim. 

1.  To  teach  from. 

2.  To  aid  the  child's  natural  power  of  observation,  and  to  help  him  to  dis- 

cover for  himself  the  similarity  and  dissimilarity  existing  between 
different  objects. 

3.  To  give  the  use  of  right  terms. 

(c)  The  Game. — The  sides, 
corners,  edges,  etc.,  of  the  cube 
are  pointed  out,  explained,  and 
counted.  The  sphere,  cylinder, 
and  cube  are  contrasted  in 
shape,  and  so  a  difference  in 
their  properties  is  deduced.  The 
children  are  asked  to  note  that 
the  cube  and  the  cylinder  vary 
according  to  the  point  from 
which  they  are  viewed.  As  each 
property  is  distinguished,  the 
proper  terms  are  given  and  fixed 
in  the  minds  of  the  children. 

(d)  Advantages. 

1.  The  "gift"  passes  from 

the  simple  perception  of 
the  sphere  to  the  per- 
ception and  recognition 
of  differences ;  e.i{. , 
sides,  lines,  surfaces, 
circumferences,  etc. 

2.  It  gives  a  large  amount  of  actual 

the  word. 

3.  The  facts  and  relations  on  which  geometrical  truths  are  founded  are  now- 

made  familiar. 

4.  A  good  mental  training  is  given. 

(i)  The  habit  of  accurate  observation  is  encouraged. 

(2)  Reasoning  from  one  fact  to  another  is  demanded. 

(3)  The  perception  of  necessary  relations  is  taught. 

3.  Third  Gift. 

{a)  Material.— A  cube  consisting  of  eight  smaller  cubes,  and  generally 
called  the  First  Building  Box.  For  the  use  of  the  children  there  is  a  wooden 
box  containing  the  eight  smaller  cubes,  each  of  one  inch  side.  Those  for  the 
use  of  the  teacher  should  be  larger. 

6 


instruction  in  the  accepted  meaning  of 


82 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


{d)  Aim. 

I.  To  teach  number  ;  to  give  the  idea  of  whole  and  part. 

2;  To  develop  constructive  power. 

3.  To  teach  lessons  of  symmetry. 

(c)  The  Game. — The  child  manipulates  the  small  cubes  in  various  ways, 


m 


/  /  /  . 

1 

1 

i 

adding  them,  and  taking  them  away,  and  so  discovers  the  practical  truths  of 
the  elementary  rules.  The  things  are  then  named,  and  some  short  formulae 
may  be  given.  The  child  is  encouraged  to  put  its  observations  into  words.  A 
series  of  lessons  can  be  given,  and  various  objects  may  be  constructed,  such  as 
a  table,  bench,  door,  window,  steps,  castle,  clock,  chair,  etc.  The  lesson  is 
aided  by  any  anecdote,  or  any  facts  of  natural  history  which  the  objects  may  sug- 
gest. Then  after  each  set  lesson,  the  children  should  be  allowed  to  build 
according  to  their  own  fancy. 

{d)  Advantages. 

1.  Utility.-  Objects  of  everyday  use  are  manufactured,  and  so  the  children 

become  familiar  with  their  structure  and  uses. 

2.  Beauty. — The  bricks  are  all  symmetrically  laid,  and  the  completion  of 

each  object  gives  a  sense  of  order  and  regularity. 


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^  ^  ^  J 

\/\/\A  II 

z><2><2><mm 

iini 

■f 

— ||r 

Mental. — Fresh  observations,  the  perception  of  similarities  and  differ- 
ences, analogies  and  contrasts,  are  made. 

Interest. — The  arousing  of  the  child's  interest  is  very  obvious.  Heart 
and  soul  is  put  into  the  work,  and  a  pleasant  and  valuable  association 
is  set  up  between  work  and  school. 

Originality.—This  is  called  forth  and  stimulated.  The  child  is  allowed 
to  act  independently,  and  this  gives  scope  for  original  constructive 
efforts.     The  delight  and  value  of  such  work  are  considerable. 


KINDERGARTEN. 


83 


4.  Fourth  Gift. 

(a)  Material. — A  cube  which  is  divided  into  eight  oblong  bricks.  It  is 
called  the  Second  Building  Box.  Length  =  twice  the  breadth.  Breadth  = 
twice  the  thickness. 

[b)  Aim. 

1.  To  advance  upon  former  lessons,  and  to  give  more  exercises  in  building 

and  pattern  forming. 

2.  To  give  the  child  the  power  of  selecting  the  right  side. 


[c)  Game.— This  is  much  like  the  last.  The  child  is  still  amused  with  its 
instructive  and  constructive  play.  The  children  first  build  from  the  teacher's 
dictation,  and  then  from  their  own  ideas. 

{d)  Advantages. — It  begins  a  new  series  of  observations  of  lines  and  pic- 
tures. The  third  and  fourth  gifts  may  be  very  usefully  combined,  and  a  number 
of  advanced  and  constructive  figures  can  be  built.  It  is  recommended  that  this 
combination  be  made  before  passing  over  to  gift  five. 

5.  Fifth  Gift. 

{a)  Material. —  Third  Building  Box.  It  consists  of  a  large  cube  divided 
into  twenty-one  whole,  six  half,  and  twelve  quarter  cubes. 

[b)  Aim. — This  gift  is  really  an  extension  of  the  third  gift.  Its  aim  is  to  add 
the  study  of  oblique  lines,  obtuse  and  acute  angles,  to  the  former  lessons. 


» 


[c)  Game. — The  same  process  of  training  is  followed  as  before.  New  com- 
binations and  fresh  objects  are  formed. 

(rf)  Advantages. — Owing  to  the  more  complex  nature  of  the  gift,  all  the 
advantages  of  the  third  gift  are  enhanced. 

e.  Sixth  Gift. 

(a)  Material.— This  is  the  Fourth  Building  Box.  There  is  a  large  cube, 
which  is  divided  into  eighteen  whole  and  nine  small  oblong  bricks. 


84 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


(d)  Aim. — To  develop  more  building  exercises  and  symmetrical  forms. 
{c)  Game. — It  is  really  an  extension  of  the  fourth  game. 
(d)  Advantages. — The  advantages  of  the  fourth  gift  will  be  increased  and 
extended,  since  the  combinations  practised  are  more  complex  and  advanced. 

7.  Seventh  Gift. 

{a)  Material. — This  consists  of  planes  of  polished  wood  in  two  colours. 
There  are  five  boxes,  each  of  which  contains  a  certain  quantity  of  surface 
objects,  e.g.  : — 

A  contains  64  squares. 

B        ,,        64  right-angled  isosceles  triangles. 

C        ,,         54  equilateral  triangles. 

D        ,,         64  right-angled  scalene  triangles. 

E        ,,         64  obtuse-angled  triangles. 


(d)  Aim.— Bretsch  says  the  seventh  gift  has  immense  capabilities.  What 
they  are  will  appear  in  the  details  that  follow.  Unfortunately,  "  much  of  its 
force  and  value  has  been  lost  for  want  of  systematic  form  and  sequence  in  the 
tablets  ".  It  is  designed  to  extend  the  child's  knowledge  of  form  and  colour 
by  introducing  new  combinations. 


{c)  Game. — Here  there  is  a  series  of  well-graded  games. 

1.  Thie  Square  Tablet.— This  is  a  type  of  four-sided  figures.     It  is  given 

first  because  it  is  the  simplest  of  all  four-sided  figures.     The  square  is 
the  type  of  all  quadrilateral  figures. 

2.  Equilateral  Tablet.— This  is  presented  next  because  it  is  to  triangles 

what  the  square  is  to  quadrilaterals. 

3.  Isosceles  Tablet.— Take  a  "square  "  and  divide  it  from  corner  to  corner. 

We  get  an  isosceles  triangle. 


KINDERGARTEN. 


85 


4,  Scalene  Tablet. — Draw  a  line  bisecting  one  angle  of  the  equilateral 

triangle,  fold  the  triangle  on  this  line,  and  we  get  the  scalene  triangle. 

5.  Obtuse  Tablet. — Place  two  scalene  triangles  base  to  base,  and  we  get 

the  obtuse  tablet  or  triangle.     Thus  in  the  seventh  gift  there  are  five 
forms,  and  these  are  capable  of  unlimited  combinations. 

{(/)  Application. — Their  application  is  chiefly  artistic  and  mathematical. 

I.  The  Square. — This  educates  the  eye  to  judge  correctly  of  two  very  im- 
portant angles, 90°  and  45°,  and  both  of  which  are  of  immense  importance 
to  the  artisan,  draughtsman,  and  to  designers.  This  can  be  seen  from 
the  fact  that  it  gives  us  the  T-square,  and  it  forms  part  of  each  of  the 
' '  set "  squares. 


> 

> 

1 

> 

mli 

> 

> 

< 
< 

1 

\ 

1 

^ 

5 

> 

2.  Equilateral  Triangle. — This  has  three  angles  of  60°,  and  six  of  them 

just  fill  a  circle. 

3.  Scalene  Triangle.— This  has  angles  of  90°,  60°,  and  30°.     The  children 

must  be  made  subsequently  to  understand  that  these  are  not  the  angles 
for  all  scalene  triangles.  These  angles  give  us  another  of  our  "  set" 
squares,  and  the  triangle  is  very  useful  in  drawing  the  hexagon,  as  the 
45°  is  useful  in  drawing  the  octagon. 
A  child  then  knows  all  the  chief  angles  of  design  and  manufacture— 90°, 
45°,  60°,  and  30°. 


The  above  constitute  the  seven  gifts  of  Froebel's  system  ;  but 
the  gifts  have  been  largely  expanded  of  late  years,  so  that  now  we 
have  stick  laying,  stick  plaiting  or  interlacing,  wood  and  cork 
work,  rings,  drawing,  perforating,  embroidery,  sewing,  paper 
cutting,  paper  folding,  cardboard  work,  modelling,  and  others. 
Each  of  these  is  intrinsically  very  interesting,  and  each  has  its 
special  educational  value. 

Varied  Occupations. — A  little  misapprehension  sometimes 
exists  in  the  minds  of  young  teachers  as  to  what  are  varied  occu- 
pations.    The  following  is  an  officja)  Ijst ;-- 


86 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Ages  Three  to  Five. 


Ages  Five  to  Seven. 


1.  Games  with  music. 

2.  Games  without  music  (guessing 
games,  etc.). 

3.  Recitations  (nursery  rhymes). 

4.  Picture  lessons  (learning  to  answer  in 
complete  sentences  as  to  what  they  can  see 
in  a  picture). 

5.  Paper  folding. 

6.  Mosaic  with  coloured  tablets. 

7.  Drawing. 

8.  Matching  colours  (picking  out  the 
same  shades  of  wool  from  a  heap  of  rem- 
nants). 

9.  Plaiting  paper. 

10.  Working  patterns  with   needle    and  i 
worsted.  1 

11.  Threading  beads  in  twos,  threes,  etc.  | 

12.  Arranging  shells  in  twos,  threes,  etc. 

13.  Arranging  "pictures  of  number  "  with  \ 
cubes. 

14.  Wood  building. 


1.  Games  with  music. 

2.  Games  without  music. 

(a)  Guessing  Games,  etc. 

(b)  Taking  messages. 

3.  Picture  lessons. 

4.  Object  lessons. 

5.  Story  lessons. 

{a)  Stories  from  history. 

(6)  Grimm's  Household  Tales. 

6.  Recitations. 

7.  Paper  folding. 

8.  Mosaic   with   coloured   paper ;    use  of 


gum 
9. 
10 


Drawing ;  brush  drawing. 
Plaiting  paper. 

11.  Ruling  simple  geometrical  forms. 

12.  Measuring  and  estimating  length. 

13.  Weighing;  estimating  weight. 

14.  Setting  a  table. 

(a)  Carrying  a  glass  of  water  without 
spilling  it. 

(b)  Moving     cups    without     breaking 

them. 

15.  Modelling  in  clay. 

16.  Basket  work. 

17.  Cutting  out  patterns  and  shapes  with 
scissors. 

18.  Wood  building. 

19.  Number  pictures,  with  cubes,  beads, 
etc. 


Colour.  -All  knowledge  commences  through  the  senses  by 
sense  impressions  ;  hence  these  lessons  should  begin  at"  the 
threshold  of  school  life.  Colour  should  be  taught  before  form, 
because — 


1.  It  is  more  attractive  to  children. 

2.  It  is  a  refreshing  change  from  other  work. 

3.  It  is  more  simple  than  form.     The  recognition  of  colour  is  a  simple 

sensation,  whilst  the  recognition  of  form  involves  more  than  a  simple 
sensation. 

I.  Stages. — There  should  be  three  stages. 

1.  To  Distinguish  Colours.— This  should  be  confined  to  the  three  primary 
colours,  red,  blue,  yellow,  and  should  be  the  work  of  the  babies. 

2.  To  Matcli  and  Distinguish  two  shades  of  the  same  colour. — The  shades 
selected  should  be  widely  apart. 

3.  To  Harmonise  Colours. — To  fill  in  two  or  three  shades  between  two 
extremes. 

H.  How  Taught. — These   lessons   can   be    given    in    various 
ways  : — 

1.  By  Contrast  and  Harmony. — The  colours  can  be  put  one  against  the 
other  in  such  a  way  as  to  illustrate  both  these  principles. 

2.  By  Reference. — Flowers,   articles  of  clothing,  etc.,  can  be  referred  to, 
Worsted  balls,  ribbons,  beads,  marbles,  hair,  eyes,  chalks,  etc.,  also, 


KINDERGARTEN.  87 

3.  By  Kindergarten  Gifts. — Several  of  the  gifts  lend  themselves  to  this  pur- 
pose, whilst  colour  sheets,  pictures,  and  ravelling  may  all  be  utilised.  Tablet 
laying,  perforating,  embroidery  and  sewing,  paper  cutting  and  paper  folding, 
weavmg,  or  paper  plaiting,  etc. ,  all  assist. 

m.  Apparatus. — This  will  depend  on  the  nature  and  method 

of  teaching  employed,  but  the  following  are  recommended  ;  - 

1.  A  sheet  of  coloured  squares  showing — 

(a)  Black  and  white. 
lb)  Primary  colours. 

(c)  Secondary  colours. 

(d)  Common  shades  of  different  colours. 

2.  Loose  cards  coloured  in  the  same  way. 

3.  Coloured  wools  and  textile  fabrics. 

4.  Coloured  pictures. 

5.  A  set  of  small  drawing  models  painted  in  different  colours. 

rv.  General  Principles.  Plan  of  a  Iiesson  on  a  Secondary 
Colour. 

1.  Experiment  and  Observation. 

(a)  Mix  the  two  primary  colours  which  form  it,  e.g:  : — 

Red  and  blue  mixed  give  purple. 
Red  and  yellow  ,,  orange. 
Blue  and  yellow       ,,         green. 

Do  not  tell  the  children  what  will  happen.  Let  them  observe  carefully,  so 
that  they  may  see  the  result  for  themselves.  This  will  ensure  interest 
and  attention. 

{b)  Use  a  prism.  Decompose  light  by  the  aid  of  a  prism,  and  throw  the 
colours  on  the  wall.     Of  course,  a  suitable  day  is  wanted. 

2.  Judgment. 

[a)  Get  the  children  to  select  a  shade  between  two  other  shades,  to  point 

out  a  lighter  or  darker  shade  than  the  one  pointed  out  by  the  teacher. 
{b)  As  a  further  exercise,  they  could  have  a  number  of  colours  submitted  to 

them  in  a  convenient  way,  which  they  should  be  asked  to  contrast. 

The  shades  in  the  clothing  of  their  class  mates  would  afford  other 

illustrations. 
{c)  As  the  colours  are  learned,  the  children  should  be  required  to  match  the 

loose  cards  from  the  coloured  s(|uares,  or  vice  versa, 
{d)  They  should  then  be  asked  to  name  familiar  objects  of  colour  under 

observation. 

3.  Harmony. — To  teach  harmony,  accustom  the  eye  of  the  child  to  good 
instances  of  it.  Avoid  inharmonious  combinations  in  all  lessons,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, in  the  colour  of  the  school  walls. 

Form. — Lessons  on  form  are  better  instruments  for  education 

than  lessons  on  colour;  but  they  are  harder,  and  therefore  follow 

colour.     There  is  much  in  child  school  life  that  can  aid  the  teacher 

in  these  lessons,  such  as  kindergarten  occupations,  slates,  pencils, 

some  of  the  school  furniture,  the  B.B.,  and  books. 

1.  Language. — The  teacher  must  be  careful  of  his  phraseology.  Technical 
terms  should  be  avoided.  The  child  wants  to  learn  the  objects,  not  the  names 
without  the  objects.  For  this  purpose  simple  descriptive  language  should 
supersede  technicalities  until  a  later  lesson,  since  a  child  may  be  able  to  recall 
an  object,  but  fail  to  recall  its  difficult  name. 

2.  Size. — Size  should  be  taught  first.  Children  readily  perceive  the  different 
bulks  of  different  bodies.     Most  answers  will  only  be  approximately  right,  and 


88  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

the  diffictiUy  increases  with  difference  of  form  and  equality  of  bulk.  The  objects 
should  be  placed  before  the  children,  compared  with  some  common  standard, 
and  their  judgment  should  be  invited  and  corrected  where  necessary. 

3.  Dimensions. — This  would  naturally  lead  on  to  the  teaching  of  dimen- 
sions. Objects  of  similar  shape  are  larger  or  smaller  than  each  other,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  longer  or  shorter,  broader  or  narrower,  etc.,  and  so  the  terms 
long  and  short,  broad  and  narrow,  high  and  low,  thick  and  thin,  deep  and 
shallow,  are  leai-ned.  School  objects  will  furnish  plenty  of  material  for  this, 
whilst  variety  can  be  obtained  by  references  to  outside  materials  and  buildings. 
In  most  cases — all  where  possible — the  children  should  actually  measure  the 
objects  themselves,  for  which  purpose  flat  wooden  rulers  should  be  supplied  to 
them.     The  synonymity  of  height  and  depth  should  be  illustrated. 

4.  Positions. — Lines  may  be  drawn  on  the  B.B.  in  one  position,  in  two,  and 
in  three — the  upright,  the  lying  down  or  level,  and  the  slanting.  These  can 
then  be  mixed  and  the  class  tested.  The  children  can  be  asked  to  put  their 
books  or  pencils,  etc. ,  in  the  various  positions.  They  can  then  draw  the  lines 
on  their  slates  to  the  teacher's  dictation.  Drawing  can  also  be  done  from 
imitation  on  the  B.B.,  the  teacher  gradually  building  letters  like  I,  H,  T,  L, 
E,  F,  embracing  perpendicular  and  horizontal  lines  (uprights  and  levels),  whilst 
X,  W,  V,  M,  N,  Z,  introduce  the  slanting  line. 

8.  Curve. — The  cu7-ve  will  follow.  It  is  already  a  familiar  shape  to  the 
children.  Balls,  marbles,  apples,  oranges,  coins,  crockery,  wheels,  clocks, 
watches,  etc.,  are  known,  and  can  be  utilised  as  illustrations. 

The  capital  letters  like  C,  G,  J,  O,  Q,  B,  R,  D,  S,  can  be  introduced,  and 
their  elements  analysed.  The  children  might  then  try  to  copy  them.  Some 
teachers  recommend  \he.  petals  of  flowers  for  the  teaching  of  form  and  colour, 
but  there  are  difficulties  which  make  their  use  doubtful,  at  least  for  form,  for 
young  children.  The  supply  of  flowers  would  be  one,  the  varied  forms  of  the 
petals  another,  the  difficulty  for  young  children  of  folding  out  the  petals  to 
their  true  shape  another ;  but,  where  practicable,  the  exercise  could  be  made 
very  interesting. 

6.  Surface. — This  could  now  be  taught  from  the  observation  of  flat  and 
spherical  bodies. 

Drawing^. — This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  most 
instructive  of  the  many  gifts  of  the  kindergarten  method.  Its 
connection  with  writing  has  already  been  pointed  out,  but  it  pos- 
sesses other  advantages  over  and  above  this.  It  is  the  first  step 
to  design,  and  the  improvement  of  design  is  very  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  some  of  our  manufactures.  It  is  an  essential  to 
many  occupations ;  it  encourages  and  develops  observation,  culti- 
vates the  graphic  memory,  exercises  the  imagination  in  the  construc- 
tion of  design,  cultivates  the  perceptive  faculty ,  and  gives  a  delicacy 
of  manipulation  which  is  very  valuable.  Furthermore,  description 
appears  in  its  most  successful  form  in  drawing,  for  the  most  gifted 
writer  cannot  present  a  scene  like  a  picture,  which  always  appeals 
to  the  understanding  and  the  emotions  more  rapidly  and  more 
successfully  than  any  word  description.  It  develops  the  cesthetic 
emotion  by  raising  the  tastes  of  the  people.  Good  works  of  art 
may  and  often  do  become  objects  of  enjoyment  where  the  drawing 
faculty  has  been  cultivated,  whilst  habits  of  care,  neatness,  and 
accuracy  are  produced  which  must  react  upon  the  general  character, 


KINDERGARTEN. 


89 


Apparatus.—Graduated  slaie  cards  should  be  used  in  the  earliest  classes, 
s(/uared  paper  for  the  higher  classes,  and  the  whole  work  should  be  based  on 
Froebel's  system.  Where  Mulhauser's  system  of  writing  is  taught,  the  squares 
are  a  training  for  the  use  of  the  rhomboids.  A  chequered  B.B.  will  be  neces- 
sary for  demonstration.     The  work  might  be  divided  into  three  stages. 

1.  First  Stage.  -Squared  slates  and  paper  are  recommended  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons : — 

{a)  To  guide  the  child's  hand. 

\b)  To  give  the  first  ideas  of  length  and  proportion. 

This  stage  deals  only  with  the  length  and  direction  of  straight  lines  and 
common  angles.     The  exercises  should  be  graded  thus  : — 

(fl)  Level  (horizontal)  lines. 

\b)  Upright  (perpendicular)  lines. 

\c)  Slanting  (oblique)  lines. 


Common  simple  terms  should  be  used  first,  the  technical  names  being  given 
afterwards.  Alternate  lines  are  then  drawn  through  two  spaces,  and  the  per- 
pendicular and  horizontal  are  brought  near  to  each  other  for  comparison. 
Oblique  lines  are  similarly  treated,  and  the  process  is  continued  until  the  lines 
run  through  five  squares.  The  common  angles  could  then  be  taught.  They 
could  be  spoken  of  as  small  corners  (ac7/le),  large  corners  {obtuse),  and  («/)-right 
corners. 

2.  Second  Stage. — In  this  stage,  the  lines  are  grouped  to  form  figures  in 
various  positions.  The  figures  are  geometrical,  like  the  right-angled  triangle, 
the  square,  and  combinations  of  these  ;  e.g.,  two  right-angled  triangles  may  give 
a  square  ;  a  series  of  squares  of  graded  sizes  joined  together  give  steps  ;  and  so 
on.  The  children  thus  get  their  first  idea  of  design  by  learning  the  analysis  and 
synthesis  of  common  geometrical  figures.  This  method  of  teaching  offers  large 
scope  for  figure  building,  and  is  very  interesting  to  children. 

3.  Third  Stage. — Further  combinations  are  made  in  this  stage.  Larger  and 
more  complicated  figures  are  given,  and  simple,  pretty,  straight-lined  designs 
are  sometimes  the  result.  The  children  might  also  be  left  to  their  own  ingenuity 
now  and  then  to  devise  designs  of  their  own.  The  system  also  lends  itself 
readily  to  dictated  and  memory  drawing. 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Give  the  heads  of  a  lesson  on  the  three  principal  colours,  and  say  what  objects, 
pictures,  or  apparatus  you  would  need  to  make  such  a  lesson  interesting  and  useful. 

2. — Describe  the  best  system  you  know  for  teaching  form  and  colour. 

3.— Explain  the  terms  kindergarten,  Froebel's  gifts,  and  state  fully  the  educational 
use  of  the  second  and  fourth  gifts. 

4. — Detail  some  of  the  geometrical  properties  that  may  be  taught  to  young  children 
by  folding  square  or  rectangular  pieces  of  paper,  and  give  illustrative  diagrams. 

5.-;-Giye  examples  of  kindergarten  exercises  that  may  be  used  to  stimulate  invention 
and  imitation  in  young  children. 

6. — Enumerate  Froebel's  seven  gifts,  and  show  the  progressive  nature  of  their 
lessons. 

7.— For  what  purposes  are  lessons  on  form  and  colour  given  to  infants?  Name  the 
order  in  which  the  principal  plane  figures  should  be  taught. 

8. — Describe  the  g^rljest  lesgons  in  drawing  which  woijld  be  given  in  qn  infant 
school, 


go  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

g. — Of  all  the  different  employments  now  used  in  infant  schools,  besides  the  learning 
of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  which  do  you  consider  most  useful  and  interesting, 
and  why  ? 

lo. — The  Code  requires  that  "  appropriate  occupations  shall  be  provided  for  children 
in  an  infant  school,  besides  instructions  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  and  in 
common  objects".  What  are  the  best  of  these  "  occupations,"  and  what  educative  pur- 
pose do  they  serve  ? 

II. — In  what  order  would  you  use  the  kindergarten  "gifts"  in  an  infant  school? 
How  should  the  lessons  be  conducted  so  as  best  to  exercise  the  intelligence  and  observa- 
tion of  the  children  ? 

12. — Notes  of  Lessons.     The  square  and  its  properties  (I.). 

13. — "  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  of  little  service  to  adopt  the  '  gifts'  and 
mechanical  occupations  of  the  kindergarten,  unless  they  are  so  used  as  to  furnish  real 
training  in  accuracy  of  hand  and  eye,  in  intelligence  and  in  obedience."  Explain  and 
illustrate  this  passage,  and  show  how  a  teacher  can  best  give  effect  to  its  recommen- 
dation. 

14. — Describe  a  good  lesson  on  colour  adapted  for  an  infant  class,  and  say  what 
illustrations  you  would  get  together  before  giving  such  a  lesson. 

15. — Say  how  you  could,  either  by  paper  folding  or  by  simple  drawing,  make  the 
properties  of  a  square  visible  to  young  children,  and  explain  what  are  the  uses  of  such  a 
lesson. 

16. — Taking  a  square  of  paper,  what  simple  ideas  of  form  can  you  impress  on  a  class 
by  folding  a  paper  so  as  to  make  a  single  crease  in  it  ? 


91 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ARITHMETIC. 

In  the  Revised  Instructions  issued  to  Her  Majesty's  Inspectors, 
it  is  stated  that  many  experienced  teachers  believe  that  the  true 
progression  in  Arithmetic  is  not  to  be  found  in  advancing  from 
addition  and  subtraction  to  multiplication  and  division,  with  the 
large  numbers  often  given  in  sums;  but  in  graduated  exercises 
beginning  with  small  numbers  and  exhausting  all  their  combina- 
tions. Such  teachers  will  take,  for  example,  the  number  twenty, 
and,  after  helping  the  scholars  to  count  cubes  or  other  objects, 
will  dissect  the  number,  find  out  in  how  many  ways  it  is  made  up, 
learn  its  fractions  and  aliquot  parts,  apply  it  to  money,  length,  hours, 
and  minutes,  and  perform  all  the  arithmetical  processes,  both  orally 
and  in  writing,  which  can  be  dealt  with  within  that  limit,  higher 
numbers  and  more  elaborate  exercises  in  notation  being  reserved 
to  a  later  stage.  Whether  this  course  be  followed  or  not,  the 
reasons  of  arithmetical  processes  should  be  properly  explained  and 
understood,  for  this  is  a  department  of  school  work  which  has 
been  much  overlooked.  There  is  in  an  elementary  school  course 
scarcely  any  more  effective  discipline  in  thinking  than  is  to  be 
obtained  from  an  investigation  of  the  principles  which  underlie 
the  rules  of  Arithmetic,  When  children  obtain  answers  to  sums 
and  problems  by  mere  mechanical  routine,  without  knowing  why 
they  use  the  rule,  or  when,  on  receiving  a  question  or  a  problem, 
they  ask,  "  What  rule  is  it  in  ?  "  they  cannot  be  said  to  have  been 
well  instructed  in  Arithmetic. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  Arithmetic  is  both  an  art  and  a 
science,  the  former  being  all-important  for  practice  and  the  latter 
for  training.  The  science  deals  with  the  properties  and  principles 
of  numbers,  discovers  their  truths,  and  hands  them  over  to  the 
art  which  applies  them.  Each  has  its  value  ;  but  when  Arithmetic 
is  all  art,  as  it  often  has  been  in  some  schools,  it  then  becomes  a 
mere  imitative  or  mechanical  process,  and  quite  useless  as  a 


92  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

means  of  training — its  highest  value.  It  will  thus  be  obvious  that 
for  the  efficient  handling  of  the  subject  it  must,  like  Grammar,  be 
taught  inductively  and  applied  deductively.  Every  new  rule  or 
truth  should  be  taught  by  this  inductive  method  ;  nor  should  the 
rule  be  applied  to  the  working  of  examples  until  the  reasoning 
underlying  those  truths  is  perfectly  clear  to  the  class. 

Good  teaching  will  seek  to  reduce  the  labour  involved  in  the 
work  to  a  minimum  ;  to  supply  easy  and  short  rules,  clear  and 
intelligent  methods,  sufficient  and  suitable  explanations,  backed 
by  well-chosen  examples.  The  newer  and  abbreviated  methods 
will  enable  the  teacher  to  get  rid  of  cumbrous  operations,  which 
breed  fatigue  and  disgust  for  the  subject.  Assistance  will  be  so 
given  as  to  encourage  self-eff'ort ;  the  methods  of  teaching  adopted 
will  strengthen  concentration,  which  is  all-essential  in  Arithmetic  ; 
and  it  will  insist  upon  the  work  being  set  out  in  a  neat,  legible, 
and  clear  style,  whilst  numerous  suitable  exercises  will  ensure 
rapid  and  accurate  computations  and  solutions. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  Reasoning. — It  is  a  fine  aid  towards  building  up  the 
reasoning  powers,  being  both  inductive  and  deductive  in  its  teach- 
ing. A  small  number  of  fundamental  propositions  is  laid  down, 
consisting  of  such  definitions  as  "  Two  is  one  and  one,"  "  Three 
is  one  and  two  "  ;  or  such  axioms  as  "  The  sums  of  equals  are 
equal,"  or  "  The  diff'erences  of  equals  are  equal,"  and  from  these 
propositions  are  derived  a  large  number  of  truths  and  applications 
of  truths.  Arithmetic  makes  the  mind  precise  and  accurate  in 
its  statements  and  judgments,  and  gives  an  orderly  turn  to  it.  By 
its  aid  the  pupil  learns  to  distinguish  between  the  essential  and 
the  non-essential,  and,  generally,  it  supplies  him  with  some  neces- 
sary materials  and  training  for  scientific  reasoning;  and,  finally, 
as  it  deals  largely  with  abstract  numbers,  it  assists  considerably 
in  developing  the  power  of  abstraction. 

2.  Truth. — It  is  an  enemy  to  fallacies.  Under  its  influence 
the  pupil  learns  to  accept  nothing  without  a  clear  reason  capable 
of  demonstration.  Some  urge,  however,  that  a  too  exclusive 
devotion  to  the  wider  subject  of  mathematics  gives  a  wrong  bias 
of  mind  respecting  truth  generally  ;  and  although  what  is  true  of 
mathematics  is  largely  true  of  arithmetic,  nevertheless  there  is 
no  fear  of  falling  into  this  misfortune  in  an  elementary  school. 
We  learn  from  Mill  the  reasons  why  the  primary  truths  of  mathe- 


ARITHMETIC. 


93 


matics  seem  to  have  a  greater  certainty  than  other  inductive 
truths : — 

(a)  Their  Universality. — They  are  true  of  everything,  everywhere,  and  at 
every  time. 

{b)  Their  Extreme  Familiarity.— The  perception  of  their  truth  only  requires 
the  simple  act  of  looking  at  objects  in  the  proper  position,  and  often 
only  thinking  of  them  in  such  a  position.  Hence  exemplifications  of 
their  truth  are  incessantly  presented  to  us. 

{c)  The  Absence  of  any  Analogies  to  Suggest  a  Different  Law.— This  is 
very  important.  If  everything  in  the  universe  always  maintained  a 
condition  of  absolute  rest,  we  might  find  as  much  difficulty  in  conceiv- 
ing the  possibility  of  the  sun  falling  from  the  sky  as  we  now  have  of 
conceiving  that  two  straight  lines  can  enclose  a  space. 

{d)  They  are  Never  Counteracted,  being  independent  of  causes, 

3.  Attention. — It  is  a  fine  aid  to  concentration,  depending  for 
its  success  upon  the  undivided  attention  of  the  pupil. 

4.  Emotional  Effects. — It  is  generally  popular  with  children, 
especially  with  those  who  can  master  its  difficulties  readily. 
There  is  a  consciousness  oi power  following  success,  an  intensified 
interest  of  pursuit,  a  rebound  of  intellectual  pleasure  over  some  prob- 
lem solved.  Its  many  devices  for  solution  arouse  wonder,  and 
the  capacity  to  deal  with  its  problems  gives  a  healthy  self-esteem. 

5.  Its  Practical  Uses. — These  are  so  obvious  as  to  scarcely 
need  mention.  Apart  from  the  training  and  discipline  supplied  on 
the  inductive  side,  it  forms  a  necessary  qualification  for  everyday 
life,  and  especially  for  the  shopkeeper,  the  merchant,  the  clerk, 
the  engineer,  surveyor,  astronomer,  accountant,  and  many  other 
callings. 

NOTATION. — The  teaching  of  notation  to  very  young  chil- 
dren requires  much  care  and  skill,  for  it  involves  the  difficult 
transition  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  Such  corlcrete 
objects  as  kindergarten  sticks,  cubes,  the  ball  frame,  lines  or  dots 
upon  the  B.B.,  picture  numbers  or  money,  are  now  invariably 
used,  so  that  this  branch  of  school  work  is  taught  on  more 
scientific  methods  than  formerly.  Constant  reference  is  made  to 
the  apparatus,  and,  where  possible,  the  children  are  allowed  to 
manipulate  the  objects  themselves  ;  and  although  the  very  large 
classes  in  many  of  our  modern  schools  make  this  manipulation  a 
serious  consideration  both  as  to  time,  expense,  and  discipline, 
still  it  is  based  upon  a  principle  of  child  life,  and  should  be  adopted 
even  in  the  face  of  difficulties.  The  arithmetic  then  affords  train- 
ing for  both  hand  and  eye,  and  both  kindergarten  sticks  and  pic- 
ture numbers  afford  opportunities  for  this  kind  of  teaching.  For 
this  reason,  where  such  things  are  available,  and  one  kind  at  least 


94  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

ought  to  be  available  in  every  school  containing  young  children, 
it  is  recommended  that  the  lessons  be  given  with  their  aid. 

The  Numbers  from  1  to  9. — Taught  with  kindergarten  sticks. 
Several  lessons  will  be  necessary.  The  skill  of  the  teacher  is  the 
deciding  factor  rather  than  any  fixed  division  of  lessons. 

First  Lesson.— Have  5  sticks  distributed  to  each  child.  At  a  subsequent 
lesson  the  whole  9  could  be  given  out. 

1.  (a)  The  teacher  holds  up  one  stick,  and  says  one  stick,  the  children  re- 

peating while  lifting  up  one  stick  each.  The  number  nufne  is  thus 
associated  with  the  object. 

{b)  Now  show  one  cube,  one  finger,  one  marble,  etc.  In  each  case  the 
children  repeat  one  cube,  one  finger,  or  one  marble.  The  object  is  to 
accumulate  instances. 

{c)  Now  place  a  dot  or  a  line  upon  the  B.  B.  The  children  again  say  ' '  one 
dot  "  or  "  one  line  ".  They  should  be  asked  to  make  a  dot  or  a  line 
upon  their  slates.  Then  put  the  figure  one  (i)  on  the  B.B.  Let  them 
make  it  upon  their  slates.  Tell  them  that  it  represents  i  stick,  i  cube, 
I  marble,  etc.  Impress  upon  them  the  fact  that  i  always  means  i 
something.  The  object  is  to  get  them  to  recognise  the  written  symbol 
for  I. 

2.  Hold  up  a  second  stick  in  the  other  hand.     The  children  recognise  it  as 

one  stick,  and  say  so.  They  notice  that  you  have  one  in  each  hand. 
They  then  take  up  another  stick  themselves,  imitating  you.  Transfer 
both  sticks  to  one  hand,  the  children  again  copying.  Now  tell  them 
that  one  stick  and  one  stick  make  two  sticks,  the  children  repeating  as 
before.  Now  make  another  dot  or  line  upon  the  B.B.,  beside  the  first 
one.  How  many  dots  now?  Repeat  with  other  objects.  Then  make 
a  figure  2  on  the  B.B. ,  let  the  children  copy  on  their  slates,  and  again 
make  them  understand  that  this  figure  stands  for  two  something — 
sticks,  cubes,  balls,  etc.  Then  exercise  the  class  in  picking  out  two 
things  about  the  room. 

3.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  the  other  numbers,  remembering  that  as 

the  numbers  increase  in  value  fewer  should  be  taken  for  one  lesson, 
because  a  greater  variety  of  simple  arithmetic  exercises  may  be  worked 
from  them. 

4.  Make  use  of  the  sticks  to  perform  simple  exercises  in  the  simple  rules  ; 
■     e.g. ,  let  children  take  up  3  sticks  in  one  hand  and  2  in  the  other.    Then 

transfer  them  to  one  hand.  Count  them — thus  2  and  3  make  5.  Such 
exercises  as  4  +  i,  3  +  2,  2  +  2,  2  +  i,  etc.,  could  be  worked  in  the 
same  way  ;  or  5  -  4,  4  -  2,  3  -  i.  There  are  2  twos  in  4,  5  ones  in  5, 
5  ones  make  5,  and  so  on. 

Numbers  from  lO  to  20, — Still  taught  by  kindergarten  sticks, 
but  now  each  child  will  require  two  bound  bundles  of  sticks,  each 
bundle  containing  ten,  and  ten  separate  individual  sticks  also. 
This  will  be  a  big  demand  where  the  classes  run  to  sixty,  but  it 
should  be  met  if  possible.     The  bundles  should  be  strongly  bound. 

1.  To  Teach  10.— The  teacher  picks  up  10  sticks  one  at  a  time,  the  children 
imitating  and  naming  as  the  groups  increase  up  to  9.  When  the  tenth  stick  is 
reached  give  them  the  new  name  ten.  Let  them  show  their  10  sticks  and  name 
them.  Vary  the  instances  again,  and  let  the  children  count  and  name  in  each 
case.  Now  write  the  symbol  10  on  the  B.B.,  let  them  write  it  on  their  slates, 
and  make  them  understand  that  this  represents  7^^^  somethings.  Plenty  of 
exercise  of  the  kind  specified  now  should  be  given. 


ARITHMETIC. 


95 


2.  To  Teach  11  and  12,  etc. 

{a)  Let  the  children  take  up  a  bundle  of  sticks  each,  and  count  the  number 
of  sticks  in  each  bundle — lo.  Then  one  bundle  is  equal  to  ten  single 
sticks.  Take  up  a  bundle  in  one  hand  and  a  single  stick  in  the  other. 
Class  imitate.  Transfer  both  to  one  hand.  How  many  sticks  has 
each  one  now?  lo  and  i.  Tell  them  lo  and  i  make  eleven.  Let 
them  repeat  the  name.  Its  notation  presents  afi-esh  difficulty.  Make 
a  large  figure  1  on  the  B.B.,  and  tell  them  that  stands  for  i  bundle,  or 
lo  sticks  in  i  bundle.  Then  make  a  small  i  beside  it  to  represent  the 
individual  stick,  thus,  1 1.  Let  them  copy  the  symbol  on  their  slates, 
and  tell  then>  that  the  figures  stand  for  ii.  The  name  is  thus  fixed  to 
the  symbol.  Vary  the  instances  again,  showing  ii  cubes,  or  ii  marbles, 
etc. ,  and  let  them  name  the  number  in  each  case.  A  proper  arrange- 
ment of  the  cubes,  dots,  balls,  etc. ,  will  greatly  assist  in  the  formation 
of  a  right  conception,  thus — 


10  Cubes      (Cube 


il  Cubes 


10 Dots  (Dot 


Ball  Frame: 


JO  Beads^    I  Bead, 
II  Beads 


{b)  The  same  method  could  be  adopted  for  the  teaching  of  12,  and  now  the 
teacher  will  be  able  to  illusti-ate  with  a  shilling  and  12  pennies  or 
with  a  sixpence  and  12  halfpennies.     All  the  numbers  up  to  19  could 
be  thus  treated,   the  teacher  remembering  to  follow  out  the  various 
steps  in  each  case  as  detailed  in  the  lessons  given  above.     For  the 
present  the  symbols  might  still  be  represented  with  a  large  figure  for 
the  tens,  and  a  small  one  for  the  units,  thus,  li,  I2,  I3,  I4,  I5,  and  so 
on.     But  subsequently  the  teacher  must  reduce  the  tens  figure  to  the 
same  size  as  the  units,  and  associate  its  greater  value  zuith  its  position. 
If  coloured  chalks  are  used  in  the  first  case  to  mark  the  tens  figure,  the 
symbols  will  be  still  more  intelligible  to  the  children.     The  teaching  of 
20  ought  to  present  no  difficulty  to  the  teacher  now. 
Numbers  above  20. — The  process  is  practically  the  same,  and  there  ought 
to  be  no  further  difficulty  in  dealing  with  this  branch  of  the  subject.     As  the 
numbers  proceed,  the  children  should  be  exercised  in  building  up  the  numbers 
with  the  sticks,  and  afterwards  in  decomposing  them.     This  will  afford  capital 
practice  both  in  synthesis  and  analysis  of  numbers,  which  is  so  necessary  to  the 
right  understanding  of  some  of  the  after  processes  in  arithmetic.     When  the 
children  are  familiar  with  the  new  names  for  the  symbols  30,  40,  etc.,  the  con- 
nection between  them  and  the  numbers  between  12  and  20  might  be  contrasted 
and  explained  thus  : — 

three  (3)  and  \\\\rteen  (13)  and  thir/y  (30). 
four  (4)  ,,  four/^^«(i4)  ,,  {orty  (40). 
five    (s)    „    Mteen     (15)    „    Mty    (50). 

The  Notation  of  Hundreds. — The  class  already  knows  up  to 

99- 

1.  New  Names. — With  kindergarten  sticks  show  that  ten  tens  make  100, 
Give  the  new  name,  write  its  symbols  on  the  B.  B. ,  let  class  copy  on  their  slates 
and  repeat  the  name.  In  a  similar  way,  let  them  learn  to  recognise  when 
written  on  the  B.  B.  and  on  their  slates  200,  300,  etc. ,  up  to  900.  There  will  be 
no  difficulty  with  this  step. 


H 

T 

u 

7 

3 

I 

9 

I 

3 

2 

6 

4 

2 

o 

7 

O 

9 

96  ^  A/^£H^  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

2.  Decomposition. — Now  have  the  numbers  decomposed.  The  class  are 
already  familiar  with  the  process  with  numbers  of  two  figures,  thus  : — 

100  —  10  tens  and  no  units  ;  or  i  hundred  o  tens  o  units. 
200  =  20  tens  and  no  units  ;  or  2  hundreds  o  tens  o  units. 

3.  Notation. — Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  we  simp/v  name  what  is  present, 
and  say  nothing  of  what  is  absent.  We  do  not  say  one  hundred  no  tens  and  no 
units,  but  simply  one  hundred,  or  two  hundred,  etc.  Rule  three  parallel 
columns  on  the  B.B. ,  and  head  them  units  (U),  tens  (T),  and 
hundreds  (H),  and  see  that  the  class  understands  them. 

4.  Further  Decomposition. — Give  further  practice  in  decom- 
position— 

70  —  7  tens. 

300  —  30  tens  or  3  hundreds. 

Ill  =  II  tens  and  i  unit ;  or  i  hundred  i  ten  i  unit. 
326  =  32  tens  and  6  units  ;  or  3  hundreds  2  tens  6  units. 
Now  ask  in  which  column  70  should  be  placed.     Its  de- 
composition helps  them  to  recognise  it  as  7  tens,  and  so  to 
place  the  7  in  the  tens  column  ;  300  would  be  3  placed  in  the 
hundreds  colunm  ;  9  would  be  placed  in  the  first  column,  and  so  on. 

5.  The  Cypher. — Now  introduce  the  cypher.  Hitherto  we  have  not  heeded 
it  in  the  notation  exercises  of  this  stage. 

[a)  In  the  Units.— Take  420  as  an  example.     Have  the  number  analysed 

into  4  hundreds  and  2  tens.  The  absence  of  units  is  expressed  by  a 
cypher  or  ti ought  (o).  Compare  10  and  20.  The  20  they  already  know 
how  to  write,  and  the  position  of  the  hundreds  (4)  is  now  easily  fixed 
for  them.     Give  other  examples,  as  340,  670,  280. 

[b)  In  the  Tens. — As  in  709.      Analyse  again  into  7  hundreds  and  9  units. 

The  absent  tens  are  expressed  by  a  cypher  (o).  Then  we  write  7  in  the 
hundreds  column  and  9  in  the  units.  In  the  middle  column  (tens) 
there  is  a  cypher  (o)  to  indicate  the  absence  of  tens.  Give  other  ex- 
amples. Diagrammatic  aids  may  be  given  by  varying  the  size  of  the 
figures  according  to  their  place  values  ;  e.g.,  2*9.  The  chief  value  of 
such  a  system  is  that  it  accustoms  children  to  associate  increasing 
values  with  figures  as  they  proceed  to  the  left.  The  notation  of  thou- 
sands can  be  dealt  with  in  the  same  way.  Perhaps  it  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  remind  students  that  this  method  of  teaching  notation  teaches 
numeration  at  the  same  time. 

NUMBER  PICTURES. — The  use  of-  number  pictures  is 
recommended  by  the  Department  in  Circular  322  for  use  in  all 
classes,  and  a  scheme  has  been  elaborated  for  teaching  the  num- 
bers up  to  twenty  by  means  of  these  number  pictures.*  There  is 
no  doubt  about  their  value  educationally,  and  they  constitute  one 
of  the  best  applications  of  kindergarten  yet  made.  The  work  is 
made  very  attractive  and  suitable,  and  the  old  mechanical  faults 
common  to  the  teaching  of  this  branch  of  arithmetic  are  destroyed 
by  it.  Children,  rightly  taught  by  these  tablets,  would  soon  love 
arithmetic,  and  would  take  their  first  steps  under  really  scientific 
principles.  There  is  no  better  method  of  teaching  this  stage  of 
the  work  than  by  those  sheets  and  tablets. 

Requirements. — To  make  their  use  effective  the  author  lays 
down  certain  requirements. 

*Hand  and  Eye  Arithmetic  for  Infants,  Blackie  &  Son. 


ARITHMETIC.  97 

1.  The  number  pictures  should  be  bright  and  attractive. 

2.  The  value  of  each  of  the  numbers  i  to  10  at  least  (preferably  i  to  20) 

should  be  impressed  on  the  memory  by  a  distinct  mental  picture. 

3.  The  difference  in  the  value  of  numbers  should  at  once  be  apparent  to  the 

eye. 

4.  In  each  picture  number  the  concrete  and  the  abstract  should  be  com- 

bined. 

5.  The  number  pictures  should  allow  all  the  component  parts  of  the  number 

to  be  vividly  shown,  both  in  the  concrete  and  in  the  abstract,  as  a 
result. 

(a)  The  truth  of  the  equality  of  each  pair  of  components  with  the  number  itself 

is  self-evident  to  the  eye. 
{b)  The  picture  of  each  pair  of  components  is  so  vividly  impressed  upon  the 

mind,  through  the  eye,  that  the  mention  of  one  component  immediately 

recalls  the  other. 

6.  The  number  picture  should  represent  pictorially  our  system  of  notation. 

7.  The  number  pictures  should  be  of  such  a  character  that  they  can  be 

reproduced  with  ease  by  the  children. 

8.  Tl>e  number  picture  should,  if  possible,  illustrate  pictorially  the  processes 

of  the  four  simple  rules. 

Apparatus. 

1.  The  Vivid  Arithmetic  Sheets  for  Number  Laying.— These  are  for  the 
teacher's  use,  and  are  adapted  for  class  teaching.  They  include  four  large  sheets 
on  rollers,  and  on  them  each  number  from  i  to  20  is  represented  by  a  distinct 
picture  in  bright  attractive  colours.  It  is  claimed  that  the  value  of  each  number 
is  impressed  on  the  mind  in  three  ways  : — 

(a)  By  the  number  of  unit  squares  which  compose  the  concrete  representation 

of  the  number. 
{b)  By  the  size  of  the  figure  itself,  each  figure  being  drawn  to  scale, 
(c)  By  the  space  covered. 

2.  Vivid  Tablets. — These  are  supplied  to  the  children,  and  correspond  to 
the  colours  on  the  sheets,  which  enable  them  to  build  an  exact  representation  of 
each  picture  number. 

3.  Other  Apparatus. — So  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the  first  few  lessons, 
there  would  also  be  required  : — 

(a)  Slates  ruled  in  squares  to  suit  the  tablets. 

(b)  Blackboard  ruled  to  match  the  slates. 

(c)  Cardboard  Figures.    A  set  of  these  should  be  given  to  each  child. 

(d)  Pencils.     Three  for  each  child. 

(e)  Apples.     To  teach  fractions. 

Teaching. — Special  stress  is  laid  on  the  following  instruc- 
tions:— 

1.  The  model  picture  should  be  made  thoroughly  secure  before  attempting 

to  teach  the  components. 

2.  The  components  should  first  be  taught  as  pictures,  and  when  these  are 

thoroughly  known,  this  knowledge  should  be  applied  to  other  concrete 
objects. 

3.  Hasten  slowly.     The  knowledge  of  one  number  must  be  thorough  and 

accurate  before  the  next  is  attempted. 

4.  The  children  must  perform  with  the  tablets  the  operation  required  to  find 

the  answer. 

5.  An  incorrect  answer  is  never  to  be  passed  over.     The  child  should  always 

be  required  to  find  the  correct  answer  for  itself  by  means  of  the  sheets 
or  tablets,  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher. 

6.  The  sheets  should  be  kept  constantly  in  front  of  the  class,  and  every 

spare  moment  should  be  utilised  in  questions  dealing  with  some  niunber 
already  taught. 

7 


98 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Flan  of  Lessons. — To  teach  the  numbers  from  i  to  20, 
twenty-three  lessons  are  required,  the  seventh  and  thirteenth 
being  recapitulatory  lessons ;  and  the  first  lesson  being  on 
counting  objects  from  one  to  five  to  familiarise  them  with  the  idea 
of  number,  and  the  names  they  have  to  use  subsequently.  The 
steps  in  each  lesson  from  the  third  onwards  comprise  certain 
well-arranged  steps  which  are  similar,  though  not  always  identi- 
cal, in  all  the  lessons.  Let  us  take  the  third  lesson,  on  the 
number  2,  as  an  illustration.     The  steps  involved  are : — 

{a)  First  teach  picture  2. 
(d)  Then  figure  2. 

[c)  Then  the  components, 
(i)  As  pictures. 

(2)  Application  of  the  pictures  to  other  objects. 

(3)  Fractions.  ' 

(d)  Exercises  without  squares.     Sheets  may  be  used. 
To  Teach  the  Number  2. 


brown    '■'■  picture-one"    and    place 
chosen,    and    placed    by 


1.  Picture  2. 

— _— _        {a)  The    children    pick    out    a 
A%  '•'•figure-one"  on  it. 

J  {b)  Another    brown   ''picture-one"     is 

^  imitation  end  on  to  the  other. 

"j^  {c)  It  is  seen  to  be  larger  than  picture-one,   and  a  new  name  is 

I  given.      The  children,  on  invitation,  count  the  two  squares. 

^—  It  is  then  called  picture-two. 

{d)  Brown  picture-two  is  picked  out  on  the  sheets. 

2.  Figure  2. 

(a)  The  teacher  points  \.o figure-two  on  the  sheets,  and  invites  the  class  to 

find  a  figure  from  the  cardboard  figures  like  it. 

[b]  Figure-two  is  named  and  placed  on  picture-two. 
\c)  The  process  is  repeated  with  red  and  blue  tablets. 

[d)  Children  draw  picture-two  on  their  slates  and  make  figure-two  on  it,  the 
teacher  guiding. 

3.  The  Components  1  -t-  1. 

(a)  As  Pictures.     The  model  picture-two  should  lie  on  the  desk  in  front  of 

each  child. 
___^  P_-____        I.  A  red  and  blue  picture-one  are  placed  end 

1^^  on  end,  and  the  class  is  invited  to  name 
'    1  the  picture  iormed—pictu7'e-two. 
jf            2.  A  question  eWciis  \haX  picture-one  and picture- 

Ig     ,  one  make  picture-two. 
H                  3.  Picture-two  is  picked  out  on  the  sheets. 
^*            4.  The  class  is  asked  how  many  picture-ones 

make  picture-two. 

5.  They  are  then  asked  how  many  times  picttire-one  can  be  taken  away 

from  picture-two.    The  answer  is  given  and  the  operation  performed  by 
the  children. 

6.  The  children  then  build  with  the  sheets  for  other  picture-twos. 

7.  They  then  build  from  memory  without  the  sheets. 

{b)  Application  of  the  Pictures  to  Other  Objects.— The  children  must  point 
to  the  pictures  corresponding  to  the  number  of  objects  spoken  of,  as 
soon  as  they  are  mentioned.     Thus  they — 


ARITHMETIC. 


99 


1.  I^earn  that  the  pictures  are  of  general  application. 

2.  Obtain  the  required  result  with  absolute  certainty. 

'\.   Deepen  the  mental  picture  of  the  components  of  the  number  each  time 
they  are  referred  to. 

Objects  are  named  and  simple  operations  performed  without  the 
tablets,  but  with  the  aid  of  the  sheets.  They  then  work  from  memory 
again.     The  exercises  should  be  very  simple,  and  of  course  limited  to  2. 

{c)  Fractions.      The  Half. 

1.  An  apple  is  cut  in  two  parts.     Each  part  is  called  a  half. 

2.  Brown  pictuj-e-two  is  made.     Picture-one  is  taken  away,  and  the  class  is 

invited  to  say  how  much  is  taken  away — one  half. 

3.  They  are  then  asked  what  picture  forms  a  haXi  of  picture-two — picture-one. 

4.  How  msLVxy  picture-ones  are  there  in  picture-two  f — two  pictures,  etc. 

5.  How  many  halves  make  the  whole  ? — two  halves,  etc.     Remember  the 

answers  are  always  to  be  in  complete  sentences. 

4.  Exercises  without  Squares. — Sheets  may  be  used. 

Subsequent  Iiessons. — These  are  very  like  the  lesson  on  the 
number  2.  The  only  other  thing  to  notice  is  the  representation 
of  the  number  pictures  themselves,  and  the  various  ways  in  which 
they  are  shown.  It  must  be  remembered  that  different  colours 
represent  the  different  components,  and  that  as  each  square  is 
used,  the  children  should  say  aloud  what  picture  it  completes.  A 
few  illustrations  of  the  various  ways  the  numbers  may  be  repre- 
sented are  now  given. 


3M? 


+  3t  ii  i 


1 
1 

1 

^j 

-4 

1 

-3t 

I. 

When  the  twenty-three  lessons  have  been  given,  the  teacher 
is  advised  to  gather  together  all  the  parts  of  the  different  multi- 
plication tables  which  have  been  taught,  arrange  them  in  order  in 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


the  usual  form,  and  then  carefully  commit  them  to  memory.  The 
meaning  of  the  tables  will  have  been  made  so  clear  during  the 
lessons  that  it  is  asserted  the  children  will  have  little  difficulty  in 
learning  the  remaining  parts  after  constructing  them  for  them- 


^1^3 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

selves,  and  applying  them  intelligently  in  the  solving  of  little 
problems.  It  is  also  claimed  that  all  the  principles  involved  in 
dealing  with  numbers  up  to  loo  have  been  taught. 

SIMPLE  ADDITION. 

I.  Units. — To  teach  simple  addition  of  units,  any  of  the 
material  objects  used  in  the  lessons  on  notation  may  be  utilised. 
If  the  teaching  in  those  lessons  has  been  successful,  the  children 
ought  already  to  be  able  to  add  units  up  to  loo.  The  teacher's 
work  will  then  be  limited  to  the  method  adopted  of  setting  out 
the  work,  and  to  making  this  intelligible  to  the  children.  Where 
neither  picture  numbers  nor  kindergarten  sticks  nor  equivalent 
aids  have  been  used,  the  teacher  might  use  the  ball  frame  and  the 
B.B. 


Dictate  the  number  5,  count  5  beads  on  the  ball  frame,  and  write  the 
figure  5  upon  the  B.B.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  the  other 
numbers. 

In  each  case  the  counting  is  to  be  done  first  in  the  concrete  with  the 
beads,  then  in  the  abstract  with  the  figures  on  the  B.B. 

The  work  is  to  be  done  step-wise,  thus : — 


ARITHMETIC.  -  loi 

3  beads  and  4  beads  make    7  beads .*.  3'?iid  4^m'ake''  7.     ' 
7  beads  and  2  beads  make    9  beads  .•.7  and  2  make    9. 
9  beads  and  5  beads  make  14  beads  /.  9  and  5  make  14. 
The  teacher  then  draws  a  line  beneath  the  3  and  writes  down  the  14. 
The  class  might  then  go  through  the  same  process,  beginning  with  the 
top  figure.     The  children  will  see  that  the  same  answer  is  obtained. 
The  work  might  then  be  varied  with  kindergarten  cubes,  thus  : — 


3  Cubes         and 


4-  Cubes  maKe  7  Cubes 


ii^ivivn       "Si 


7  Cubes 


and       Z  Cubes      make 


Ci^^ViVivri 


9  Cubes     *  so  on 


The  advantage  of  the  cubes  is  that  the  growth  of  the  addition  is  made 
clear  step  by  step.  As  in  the  previous  case  the  B.  B.  should  be  used. 
By  thus  varying  the  objects,  the  certainty  and  accuracy  of  the  truths 
involved  are  impressed  upon  the  child,  who  thus  learns  that  whatever 
the  object  used  may  be,  4  and  3  always  make  7.  The  transition  to  the 
abstract  is  also  rendered  easier. 
6.  All  the  concrete  objects  should  now  be  removed,  and  the  work  done 
mentally.  Other  examples  should  follow  to  give  the  necessary  practice 
for  accuracy, 

H.  Tens. — The  preparatory  lessons  on  notation,  or  the  use  of 

picture  numbers  and  the  arithmetic  problems  involved,  ought  still 

to  be  sufficient  to  make  this  next  step  fairly  easy  to  the  children. 

"  Carrying  "   is  an  added   difficulty  in  this  case.     The  numerical 

box  and  the  B.B.  might  be  used  for  this  lesson. 

1.  Show  the  box  and  explain  the 

use  of  its  compartments.  Let 
the  class  thoroughly  under- 
stand that  all  the  units  will  be 
placed  in  the  compartments 
under  the  U,  and  all  the  tens 
in  the  compartments  labelled 
T.  The  hundreds  can  be  left 
till  the  next  lesson. 

2.  Practise  the  class  in  the  de- 

composition of  numbers  on 

the  B.B.     Thus:- 
29  is  equal  to  20  and  9,  i.e. ,  to  2 

tens  and  9  units. 
13  is  equal  to  10  and  3,  i.e.,  to  i 

ten  and  3  units. 
72  is  equal  to  70  and  2,  i.e.,  to  7 

tens  and  2  units. 

ic  tens  make  100.     Hence  we  have  100  and  14,  which  is  written 
114. 

3.  Set  the  above  sum  on  the  B.  B.,   and  decompose  the  first  number  29 

as  shown.  The  class  wiM  readily  understand  you  then  when  you  place 
2  sticks  under  the  tens  (T),  and  9  sticks  under  the  units  (U).  Proceed 
with  the  other  numbers  in  the  same  way.  The  bottom  compartments 
can  be  used  as  answer  compartments. 


\ 

\ 

^V^  \x^\ 

=V^ 

^^ 

9\ 

-\ 

A 

R\ 

\ 

^ 

2\^ 

,\ 

I4\^ 

I02  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

4.  'Jonir.ience  v*  ith  tbe  units  compartments.    Take  the  9  sticks  out  of  the 

top  compartment  and  place  them  in  the  next  below.  Let  the  class 
count  all  the  sticks  in  it — 12.  Then  9  sticks  and  3  sticks  make  12 
sticks.  Next  take  the  12  sticks  out  and  place  them  in  the  next  below, 
and  again  let  class  count  all  the  sticks  within  that  compartment — 14. 
Then  12  sticks  and  2  sticks  make  14  sticks. 

5.  Then  turn  to  the  B.B.,  and  let  the  work  be  done  there  in  the  abstract, 

thus  :  9  and  3  are  12,  12  and  2  are  14. 

6.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  with  the  tens  compartments. 

7.  Then  explain  as  shown  under  the  diagram,  and  the  total  is  found  to  be 

T14. 

8.  Now  turn  to  the  B.B.     Cast  the  units  column  upwards,       T   |  U 

beginning  with  the  2.     The  total  is  14  again.     Decom-     

pose  this  into  i  ten  and  4  units.  Tell  the  class  to  place  2  9 
the  4  units  under  the  units  column,  and  then  add  the  113 
ten  to  the  tens  column  ;  thus  1  +  7+1  +  2  =  11.      Tell         7       2 

them  to  write  down  the  11  beside  the  4,  and  they  will     

perceive  that  the  answer  is  again  114.     The  reason  for  so       11 
doing  ought  now  to  be  well  understood  by  the  class. 

9.  As  a  confirmatory  step  compare  the  two   methods   of  expressing  the 

number  114,  and  let  the  class  see  that  they  both  produce  the  same 
result. 

Thus  10  tens  and  14  units  =  100  and  14=  114. 
II  tens  and     4  units  =110  and     4  =  114. 

10.  Further  exercises  should   be  dealt   with   in  the  same  way,  the  sticks 

and  the  box  being  eventually  withdrawn,  and  the  whole  work  done 
in  the  abstract  with  the  figures  only.  "  Hundreds"  can  be  taught 
in  the  same  way. 

SIMPLE  SUBTRACTION. 

I.  First  Iiessons. — It  is  assumed  that  the  children  can  per- 
form easy  examples  in  subtraction  from  the  practice  already 
received  with  the  kindergarten  sticks,  picture  numbers,  cubes, 
beads,  and  ball  frame.  It  is  also  assumed  that  they  are  familiar 
with  the  method  of  representing  these  simple  exercises  on  the 
B.B,  and  on  their  slates,  for  both  were  used  through  these  earlier 
lessons.  The  teacher's  work  should  then  commence  where  the 
last  lessons  finished. 

Preparatory  Exercises.— These  should  involve  neither  borrowing  nor  de- 
composing. In  every  case  the  figures  in  the  bottom  line  should  be  less  than 
those  above  it  in  the  top  line.  The  children  ought  to  be  able  to  do  these 
exercises  mentally.     Thus  : — 

18        27        35         19        17        12        78        91 
13         16        21  8  4        10        S3        60 

5         II         14        II         13        ^        25        31 

n.  The  Method  of  Decomposition. — Take  17  from  45. 

(a)  Use  the  ball  frame  or  kindergarten  sticks.     Show  that — 
45  =  4  tens  and    5  units     =40+5     =45 

=  3  tens  and  15  units\  =  30  +  i5\  =  45) 
17  =  I  ten    and    7  units/  =  10  +    7/  =  17/ 

Pifference  =  2  tens  and    3  units     =20+8     =28 


ARITHMETIC.  103 

{b)  Now  work  the  process  on  the  B.B. ;  e.g.,  take  344  from  721.  De- 
composing  each  number,  we  have — 

721=7  hundreds  and  2  tens  and  i  unit  =700+  20+  i  =721 
=  6  hundreds  and  12  tens  and  i  unit  =600+120+  i  =721 
=  6  hundreds  and  1 1  tens  and  1 1  units\  =  600  +iio+ii\=72i\ 

344  =  3  hundreds  and    4  tens  and    4unitsj'  =  300+   40+   4J  =344/ 

Dilfnce  =3  hundreds  and    7  tens  and    7  units    =300+  70+7    =377 

[c)  Work  other  examples  on  the  B.B.,  supplementing,  illustrating,  explain- 
ing, and  correcting  where  necessary.  Let  class  then  work  exercises 
on  their-  slates. 

m.  The  Method  of  Equal  Additions. 

1.  Preparatory  Exercises.— The  object  of  these  will  be  to  reveal  to  the  class 
the  fundamental  axiom  on  which  this  method  is  based.  Use  the  ball  frame 
or  kindergarten  sticks,  and  proceed  as  follows : — 

9-4    =   5- 

(9  +  3)  -  (4  +  3)  =  12  -    7  =  5 
(9  +  6)  -  (4  +  6)  =  15  -  10  =  5 
(9  +  8)  -  (4  +  8)  =  17  -  12  =  5 
Yxom.  these  and  similar  examples  the  class  will  infer  that   if  the  same 
quantity  be  added  to  two  unequal  numbers  their  difference  will  remain  un- 
altered. 

2.  Application  of  this  Truth  to  Other  Examples. — Ask  for  the  difference 
between  17  and  45 — 28  by  the  last  method.  But  the  answer  will  remain 
unaltered  if  I  add  the  same  number  to  both  of  these  quantities,  e.g.  : — 

45  +  10  =  4  tens  and  15  units  =  40  +  15  =  55 
17  +  10  =  2  tens  and    7  units  =  20  +    7  =  27 

Difference  =  2  tens  and    8  units  =  20  +    8  =  28 

The  children  may  experience  some  difficulty  in  grasping  the  reason  of 
this,  the  special  point  of  difficulty  being  that  the  additions,  although  equal, 
are  made  to  the  units  in  the  one  case  and  to  the  tens  in  the  other.  Explain 
that  this  is  merely  a  matter  of  convenience  to  make  the  work  easier,  and 
illustrate  as  follows  : — 

(a)  Original  numbers  45  \     The  children  are  to  note  that  the  7  cannot 

17 /be  taken  from  the  5. 
{b)  Add  10  to  each  quantity— 

45  +  10  =  55  i      Children  still  to  note  that  the  7  cannot  be  taken 
17  +  10  =  27 /from  the  5, 
(t)  Now  decompose  the  numbers.     Children  to  note  that  the  7  now  can 
be  taken  from  15. 

55  =  4  tens  and  15  units. 
27  =  2  tens  and    7  units. 
3.  Exercises. — Now  let  exercises  be  worked  on  the  B.  B. ,  and  extend  the 
process  to  3  figures;  e.g.,  take  354  from  543. 

543  =  5  hundreds  14  tens  (10  tens  added)  13  units  (lo  added)  =  653 
354  =  4  hundreds  (100  added)  6  tens  (i  ten  added)  4  units     =  464 

Difference  =  i  hundred      8  tens  9  units      =  189 

The  class  should  now  be  invited  to  test  the  additions.  There  has  been 
added— 

To  the  top  line     -         -     10  tens  and  10  units  =  too  +  10  =  no 

To  the  bottom  line       -     i  hundred  and  i  ten  =  100  +  10  =  no 

i.e..  Equal  Additions  are  made  in  each  case. 


I04  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

rv.  The  Method  of  Complementary  Addition. — This  method 

is  much  the  same  as  what  is  known  as  "proving"  subtraction,  and 

it  is  claimed  for  it  that  it  is  easy  and  does  away  with  one  of  the 

simple    rules  (subtraction),   reducing   the    simple    rules  to  three 

instead  of  four ;  i.e.,  to  addition,  multiplication,  and  division.     The 

practice  which  the  children  have  already  received  in  the  analysis 

and  synthesis  of  numbers,  in  decomposing  them  and  in  building 

them  up,  will  assist  materially  in  making  these  complementary 

additions.     There  are  two  difficulties  to  which  the  teacher  will 

require  to  call  attention  : — 

{a)  The  case  when  borrowing  is  required  in  ordinary  subtraction. 
(d)  The  case  of  cyphers. 

1.  Easy  Examples. — First  give  some  preparatory  exercises: — 

7  +  9  =  i6.  Here  the  complement  of  g  is  7,  and  the  complement 
of  7  is  9,  because  9  +  7  =  16  and  7  +  9  =  16. 
Other  and  similar  examples  might  be  given. 

Examples  should  then  be  set  which  are  easy  for  the  same  reason  that 
they  are  easy  in  either  of  the  other  methods,  viz.,  that  each  figure  in  the 
top  line  is  greater  than  the  figure  placed  beneath  it. 

68429     3  + (6)  =^9;  i  +  (i)=2;  2  +  2  =  4;  7  +  i:=8;  1+5=:  6. 
17213  ) 

51216  ) 

2.  Harder   Examples.— This    includes   cases   where  any  bottom  figure  fs 
greater  than  any  top   figure   placed   above   it.     If  the  children  are  to  under- 
stand the  reason  of  the  process  they  employ,  the  method  becomes 

2632  by  no  means  so  easy  as  is  asserted.     An   analysis  of  the  example 

1756^  given  will  show  that   some  of  the  difficulties  of  both  the  other 

y  methods  are  involved.     Still  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  method 

•876J  is  easy  and  quick  in  practice. 

units  6  +  (6)  =  12  =  2  units  +  i  ten. 

tens  5  +  (7)  +  (i)  =  13  =  3  tens  +  i  hundred, 
hundreds  7  +  (8)  +  (i)  =  16  =  6  hundred  +  i  thousand, 
thousands  i  +  (o)  +  (i)  =    2. 

3.  The  Cypher. — An  examination  of  an  example  will  show  that  the  cypher 
must  always  be  looked  upon  as  10,  e._^. : — 

3009  7  +  (2)  =  9 ;  3  +  (7)  =  10  =  o  tens  and  i  hundred. 

1537I  5  +  (4)  +  (i)  =  10  =  o  hundreds  and  i  thousand. 

\  i  +  (i)  +  (i)=    3. 

1472  J 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  complemental  figure,  and  the  figure  to  be 
carried,  is  expressed  in  brackets  in  these  explanations.  If  such  a  method 
were  adopted,  it  would  probably  be  better  expressed  as  follows  :  — 

68429  2632  3009 


17213  1756  1537 

51216  876  1472 


ARITHMETIC. 
TWO  METHODS  COMPARED. 


105 


Decomposition. 


1.  It  applies  and  extends  the  power  of 
decomposing  numbers  already  acquired  by 
children. 

2.  By  many  the  method  is  alleged  to  be 
simpler,  and  the  reason  of  the  process  is 
more  readily  grasped  because  no  new  prin- 
ciple is  involved. 

3.  It  is  not  so  largely  used  as  the  other 
method. 

4.  By  many  teachers  it  is  not  considered 
so  safe  as  the  method  of  equal  additions. 

5.  Though  easier  in  principle,  it  is  harder 
in  practice,  through  the  mental  process  of 
decomposition  involved. 

6.  It  is  the  slower  method  for  work  pro- 
bably. 

7.  The  occurrence  of  cyphers  increases 
the  difficulty  of  the  work. 


Equal  Additions. 


1.  It  introduces  and  applies  one  of  the 
fundamental  axioms  of  mathematics — that 
if  the  same  quantity  be  added  to  two  num- 
bers their  difference  remains  unaltered. 

2.  It  is  more  difficult  of  comprehension 
because  the  equal  additions  are  made  to 
different  denominations.  Some  teachers 
hold  a  conflicting  opinion  to  this. 

3.  It  is  the  general  method  in  practice. 

4.  Many  consider  it  the  safer  method, 
because  there  is  no  difference  in  the  pro- 
cess, although  there  may  be  in  the  examples. 

5.  Though  more  difficult  of  apprehension 
it  is  easier  in  practice,  involving  only  a 
minimum  effort  to  "  borrow "  and  "  pay 
back  ". 

6.  It  is  the  quicker  method  for  work. 

7.  The  occurrence  of  cyphers  does  not 
increase  its  difficulty. 


THE  MXTIiTIPIiICATION  TABIiSS. 

I.  Memory. — The  period  from  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  years  is 
the  best  time  for  memory  work,  and  it  is  called  the  plastic  period 
of  the  mind.  Repetition  is  necessary  for  permanence  of  impres- 
sion, and  the  art  of  teaching  the  multiplication  tables  is  to  lessen 
the  number  of  repetitions  for  their  retention.  The  work  is  ex- 
hausting, hence  there  should  be  suitable  rests  and  sequences. 

The  time  for  memory  work  is  important.  Early  morning  is 
favourable,  because  the  total  energy  of  the  pupils  is  then  at  its 
greatest.  The  last  hour  of  morning  school  is  suitable,  because 
the  strength  of  the  pupils  is  then  at  its  best.  Cold  weather  is 
conducive  to  vigorous  mental  work,  because  the  vigour  of  the  body 
is  always  greater  at  these  periods. 

Some  natures  require  prompting  or  stimulating,  hence  it  may 
be  necessary  to  subject  some  pupils  to  some  form  of  pain,  but 
the  association  is  an  unfortunate  one,  and  should  be  avoided  if 
possible.  With  the  great  majority  it  will  always  be  sufficient  to 
present  the  work  in  such  a  form  as  will  arouse  the  greatest  amount 
of  interest. 

The  formation  of  memory  depends  upon  the  formation  of 
good  habits  of  acquisition,  e.g.,  comparison,  contrast,  and  ciassi- 
hcation  through  the  detection  of  similarity  and  difference.  The 
method  of  questioning  adopted  by  the  teacher  may  also  be  made 
to  aid  memory  very  much. 


io6  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

n.  Teaching. — The  tables  may  be  grouped  into  two  classes  : 
those  which  are  easy,  and  those  which  are  more  difficult  of  acqui- 
sition. 

1,  Easy  Tables. — These   include   the   tables    for   two,  three, 

four,  five,  ten,  and  eleven. 

(<?)  Two  Times  and  Three  Times.— Let  the  children  make  up  these  tables 
for  themselves.  Thus  2  x  3  =:  6  can  be  verified  by  the  child,  who 
can  count  3  twice  or  2  thrice,  and  so  find  the  total ;  and  so  with 
the  other  numbers.  If  the  picture  numbers  have  been  used,  many 
of  the  easier  products  will  be  already  known.  The  leaps  here  be- 
tween product  and  product  are  very  small,  and  the  mind  is  gene- 
rally agile  enough  to  make  them.  They  also  enter  more  largely 
into  the  conversation  of  the  children  in  their  everyday  life  ;  e.g.  : 
"  I'm  twice  as  big  as  you;  "  "He  has  three  times  as  many  marbles 
as  John  ". 

(d)  Four  Times. — This  is  easy  for  the  same  reasons,  though  increasing  in 

difficulty  over  2  and  3. 
(c)  Five  Times.  —This  is   very  easy  from  the  alternate  recurrence  of  the 
5  and  the  o. 
■     {d)  Ten  Times. — This  table  also  is   very  easy  from  the  invariable  recur- 
rence of  the  o,  and  from  the  similarity  of  figures  in  the  product  and 
the  multiplicand,  e.g.  :— 
ID  X     8  =     80  ) 

10  X    5  =    50  >  The  attention  should  be  called  to  all  these  mnemonics. 
10  X  II  =  no  ) 

(e)  Eleven  Times. — This  is  easy  until  the  century  is  passed,  from  the  re- 

duplication of  the  figures  in  the  product  each  time.  e.g.  : — 
II  times  3  are  33. 
II       M      4    ..    44- 
II      ..      5    j»    5S>  etc. 
After  the  century  they  are  harder  because  this  reduplication  disappears 
The  teacher  may  use  devices  for  fixing,  but  as  there  are  but  three  items 
to  learn,  a  little  vigorous  repetition  would  soon  fix  these.     In  learning 
tables  a  certain  amount  of  rote  work  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  must 
be  faced. 
2.  Hard   Tables. — These    include  the   tables    for  six,   seven, 
eight,  nine,  and  twelve. 

(a)  Six  Times.— Seven-twelfths  of  this  table  are  already  known,  e.g.  .•— 
6  X     1=6  and  is  the  same  as 
6  X     2  =  12         ,,         ,,         ,, 
6  X     3  =  18         „         ,,         „ 
6  X     4  =  24         ,,         ,,         ,, 
6  X     5  =  30 

6   X    ID  =  60  ,,  ,,  ,, 

6  X  II  =  66         ,,         „         ,, 
Now  divide  the  remaining  products  into  two  classes  :  — 
(i)     6  X     6  =  36.  (2)     6x7  =  42. 

6  X     8  =  48.  6  X  9  =  54. 

6  X  12  =  72. 
In   the   first   class,    point   to   the   typed   coincidences,  and  give    plenty   of 
repetition  to  both.     It  may  also  be  advisable  to  decompose  the  second 
class,  and  to  show  that  6  groups  of  7  =  7  groups  of  6,  and  to  let  the 
class  count  the  product  in  each  case,  thus — 


I 

X 

6 

^ 

6. 

2 

X 

6 

=: 

12. 

3 

X 

6 

= 

18. 

4 

X 

6 

= 

24. 

5 

X 

6 

= 

30. 

10 

X 

6 

= 

60. 

II 

X 

6 

= 

66. 

ARITHMETIC.  107 


=  42. 


6  groups  of  7.  7  groups  of  6. 

{b)  Seven  Times.— Eight-twelfths  or  two-thirds  of  this  table  are  already 
known.  Set  out  the  known  portion  on  the  B.B.  ;  e.g.,  7  times  i,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  10,  and  11.  The  reduction  of  the  work  will  be  an  incentive  to 
learn  the  other  third.     These  are — 

7  X  7  =  49  ;  7  X  8  =  56 ;  7  x  9  =  63  ;  7  x  12  =  84. 

Mnemonics  may  be  used ;  49  may  be  represented  in  the  form  of  a 
square  ;  the  numbers  may  be  decomposed  ;  specialities  may  be  notified 
as  in  the  case  of  7  x  9  =  63,  where  the  sum  of  the  digits  in  the  product 
(6  +  3)  =  9  (the  multiplier).  But  for  so  small  a  number  of  products 
repetition  is  the  best  method. 

{c)  Eight  Times. — Proceed  as  in  "6  times"  and  "7  times".  Only  three 
products  have  to  be  learned — 

8x8  =  64;  8x9  =  72;  8x  12  =  96. 
All  the  rest  are  know^n.     64  may  be  demonstrated  like  49  ;  in  the  case  of 

8  x  9  =  72  we  again  have  7  +  2  =  9. 
But  repetition  is  still  the  best  method. 
{d)  Nine  Times. — There  are  only  two  products  to  learn — 

9  x    9  =    81,  and  this  can  be  demonstrated  like  49  and  64. 
9  X  12  =  108.     Repetition  would  soon  fix  this. 
Then  the  whole  table  might  be  set  out  on  the  B.  B. ,  and  the  memory 
assisted  by  the  following  mnemonics  : — 
9x1=      9 

9  X     2  =    18     (i)  Note  the  descending  order  of  the  units;  e.g., 
9  X     3  =    27  9,  8,  7,  6,  5,  4,  3,  2,  I,  o,  9,  8. 

9  X    4  =    36     (2)  The  ascending  order  of  the  tens;  e.g.,  1,  2,  3, 
9  X     5  =    45  4.  5.  6,  7,  8,  9,  10. 

9  X    6  =    54     (3)  The  number  of  tens  in  the  product  is  always 
9  X     7  =    63  one  less  than  in  the  multiplier  ;  e.g.,  9x2 

9  X     8  =    72  :-  18,  9  X  3  =  27. 

9  X    9  =    81     (4)  The  sum  of  the  digits  in  the  product  in  each 
9  X  lo  =    90  case  (except  9  x  11)  is  always  9;  ^.^.,  18  = 

9x11=    99  i-i-8  =  9;27  =  2-t-7  =  9;36  =  3  +  6  =  9. 

9  X  12  =  108 
(e)  Twelve  Times. — There  is  now  only  one  product  to  learn  in  this  table. 
All  else  is  already  known.  As  this  product  12  x  12  =  144  is  a  perfect 
square,  it  can  easily  be  fixed  in  the  memory.  Plenty  of  mental  arith- 
metic, and  recurring  doses  of  repetition,  will  be  found  most  efficacious 
for  permanence  of  impression. 

Multiplication  by  One  Figure. 

1.  Preparation. — The  multiplication  table  should  be  known, 
and  some  mental  arithmetic  on  the  table  chosen  should  be  given. 

2.  Method  of  Teaching. 

{a)  Show  that  multiplication  is  only  a  shortened  form  of  addition,  e.g. : — 
6x4  =  6  +  6  +  6  +  6  =  4  +  4-^4  +  4  +  4  +  4  =  24. 


io8 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


(6)  Take  an  easy  example ;  e.g. 

and  set  out  thus  . — 

(i)     4000  X  4  =  16000 

300  X  4  =     1200 

50  X  4  =      200 

2x4=  8 


4352  X  4.     Decompose  the  multiplicand, 

(2)     4000  +     300  +     50  +  2 
4 


16000  +  1200  +  200  +  8 


4352  X  4  =  17408 
{c)  Then  set  out  the  sum  on  the  B.B.  in  the  ordinary  form,  and  explain  the 
"  carrying,"  which  the  class  will  now  be  able  to  understand.     To  make 
the  transition  easier,  and  quite  intelligible,  one  extra  step  might  be 
introduced  thus  : — 


Final  Form. 
4352 
4 


T 

H 

T 

u 

4 

3 

5 

2 
4 

16  thous. 

16  thous. 

17  thous. 

12  hun.  or 
iT  4-  2H 

4  hund. 

20  tens  or 
2  H 

0  tens 

8  units. 
8  units.     1 
8  units. 

17408 


Multiplication  by  Two  Figures. 

The  class  can  multiply  by  one  figure,  and  the  same  method 
enables  them  to  multiply  by  numbers  up  to  12  ;  hence  they  can 
multiply  by  10.     Take  as  an  example  4872  x  67. 

1.  Analyse  the  multiplier  into  60  +  7.     We  require  60  times  4872  and  7 

times  4872,  and  if  we  add  the  two  answers  together  we  shall  have  67 
times  4872. 

2.  Exercise  with  multipliers  having  a  cypher  in  the  units  ;  e.g.,  20,  30,  40, 

etc.     The  class  already  know  how  to  multiply  by  10,  and  an  analysis 
of  the  product  will  show  that  with  all  such  multipliers  we  multiply  by 
the  tens  figure  and  add  a  cypher  to  our  answer. 
20  =  2  X  10,  and  so  on. 

3.  Set  the  work  on  the  B.B.  as  follows  : — 

4872  X     7  =    34104 
4872  X  60  -  292320 


The  reason  is  that 


4872  X  67  =  326424 
Then  set  the  work  out  in  the  ordinary  form,  and  show  that  the  bracketed 
cypher  may  be  omitted  without  altering  the  value. 

Final  Form. 
4872  4872 

67  67 


34104 
29232(0) 


7  X  4872 
60  X  4872 


326424       =  67  X  4872 
Multiplication  by  Three  Figures. 


326424 


Some  preparatory  work  will  be  required  to  explain  and  accustom  the 
class  to  two  cyphers  in  the  multiplier  in  such  quantities  as  200,  300, 


ARITHMETIC. 


109 


400,  etc.  The  class  will  soon  understand  why  they  add  two  cyphers 
in  the  answer.  They  can  already  multiply  intelligently  by  such 
quantities  as  20,  30,  40,  etc.  And  decomposition  will  readily  show 
that  200  =  20  X  10 ;  300  =  30  X  10 ;  and  in  each  case  both  these 
factors  are  within  the  multiplying  capacity  of  the  class.  Some 
exercises  should  be  given  to  test  the  soundness  of  their  knowledge 
of  this  process ;  e.g. ,  6429  x  200 ;  7835  x  400,   etc. 

2.  Take  as  an  example  6843  x  234. 

3.  Decompose  the  multiplier  into  200  +  30  +  4. 

4.  Proceed  as  follows  : — 


6843  X 
6843  X 
6843  X 

200  =: 

30  = 

4  = 

1368600 

195290 

27372 

6843  X  234  =  1591262 
Combine  the  three  into  the  ordinary  form,  putting  the  value  of  each  product 
by  its  side,  and  again  explaining  and  demonstrating  that  the  bracketed 
cyphers  may  be  omitted  without  altering  the  value  of  the  answer. 

Final  Form. 


6843 

234 

6843 
234 

27372    =   4  X  6843 

19529(0)  =  30  X  6843 

i3686(o)(o)  =  200  X  6843 

27372 
19529 
13686 

1591262   =  234  X  6843 

1591262 

Multiplication  by  Factors. — Multiplication  by  factors  is 
useful  as  introducing  a  little  variety  into  the  work,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  products  of  two  factors  there  may  be  some  economy  in 
time  ;  but  there  is  rarely  any  advantage  practically  in  dealing 
with  factors  beyond  this  limit.  There  is  the  advantage  of  the 
extra  training  in  the  analysis  of  numbers,  but  there  is  rarely  any 
economy  in  dealing  with  such  a  quantity  as  216  by  factors,  unless 
the  pupil  is  very  ready  at  such  analysis.  Whilst  he  is  searching 
out  the  factors  6  x  4  x  g,  he  would  already  have  partly  made  his 
calculation  by  the  ordinary  method.  There  is  no  difficulty  in 
demonstrating  this  method  intelligently  to  the  class.  The  multi- 
plier is  factored,  and  the  value  of  each  product  is  written  against 
it.     Take  as  examples  3456  x  28  and  7891  x  216. 

Factor  the  multipliers  7x4  =  28;  9x4x6  =  2 16. 

3456  7891 

7  9 


24192  =  7  x  3456  71019  =  9  x  7891 

4  4 


96768  =  28  (4  X  7)  X  3456   284076  =  36  (4  X  9)  X  7891 

6 


1704456  =  216  (6  X  4  X  9)  X  7891 


.  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Short  Methods. 

I.  With  such  numbers  as  loi,  201,  301,  etc.,  it   will   be  noticed  that  the 
units  are  unity  and  there  are  no  tens. 

Take  68754  x  201  as  an  example. 
68754         Put  down  the  first  two  figures  (54),  and  multiply  the 
201         first  figure  (4)  by  2,  adding  in  the  third  figure  back 
(7),  and  so  on. 


13819554 


This  example  should  be  set  out  on  the  B.  B. ,  and  worked  by  the  ordinary 
method,  and  the  two  compared.  The  reason  for  the  process  will 
then  be  obvious. 

2.  With  such  numbers  as  mo  or  11 14,  it  will  be  noticed  that  each  digit 

is  unity  except  the  first. 

Take  as  examples  56173  x  mo  and  56173  x  11 14. 
(rt)  56173         Put  down  a  cypher  for  the  units  in  the  first  ex- 

ilic        ample.     In  the  second  multiply  by  4,  and  then 

in  each  case  add  in  at  each  multiplication  as  many 

62352030         back  figures  as  there  are  "  ones  "  in  the  multiplier  ; 
e.g.,  the  carried  figure  is  in  brackets. 
(b)  (000)56173     (a)  o ;  3  ;  3  +  7  =  10  (o  and  carry  i) ;  3  +  7  +  i  + 
1114         (i)  =  12    (2  and   carry    i) ;   7  +  i  +  6  +  (i)  =  15 

(5  and  carry  i) ;  i  +  6  +  5  +  (i)  =  13  (3  and  carry 

62576722         i)  ;  6  +  5  +  (i)  =  12  (2  and  carry  i) ;  5  +  (i)  —  6. 
(i)  The  second  case  is    a   little   more   difficult,  and    it   will  save  errors  if 
the  student  imagines   there   to   be    as  many  cyphers  prefixed  to  the 
multiplicand  as  there  are  ones  in  the  multiplier. 
(4x3)  =  (1)2     I     (4  X  5)  +  (3)  +  6  +  I  +  7  -  (3)7 

(4  x  7)  +  (i)  +  3  =  (3)2     I     (4  X  o)  +  (3)  +  5  +  6  +  I  =  (1)5 

(4  X  i)  +  (3)  +  7  +  3  =  (1)7         (4  X  o)  +  (i)  +  o  +  5  +  6  =  (1)2 

(4  X  6)  +  (i)  +  I  +  7  +  3  =  (3)6    I    (4  X  o)  +  (i)  +  o  +  o  +  5  =   6 

3.  With  multipliers  composed  wholly  or  mostly  of  nines,  e.g.,  9,  999,  96, 

993,  etc.,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  numbers  are  always  near  some 
multiple  of  10.  The  method  is  an  application  of  the  mathematical 
truth  that  if  the  same  quantity  be  added  and  subtracted  from  a 
number  you  do  not  alter  its  value.  Take  as  examples  3475  x 
9  ;  999  ;  96.     Deal  with  the  multipliers  thus : — 

g  =  10  -  I ;  999  —  1000  -  i ;  96  =  100  -  4. 
34750  =  10  times  3475  3475000  =  1000  times  3475 

3475  =    I      „      3475  3475  =        i      m 


31275  =    9      „      3475  3471525  =    999 

347500  =  100  times  3475 
13900  =      4      „ 


333600=    96      „ 
4.  With  multipliers  composed  of  multiples  of  5. 

25.     Add  two  cyphers  and  divide  by  4  for    ^f^    =    25. 
125.        „  three         „  „  8   „    i-^-A  =  125. 

625.        „   four  „  „  16   „  i-V/-  =  625. 

Obviously  such  examples  as  these  must  be  left  until  division  is  learned. 
Some  may  have  to  be  postponed  until  fractions  and  decimals  are 
known,  e.g. : — 


ARITHMETIC.  iii 

I2|.     Add  two  cyphers  and  divide  by  8  for  ^^-    =  ^%^  =12^ 

i6f.  „  „  „      6    „   Y-    =  H^  =  i6i 

ii'i.  „  M  »      9    »    11^  =  1^--  ii-i 

9'og.  „  „  „    II    „   9A=  W=  ¥1" 

SHORT  DIVISION. — The  preparatory  exercises  introducing 
Short  Division  will  have  been  thoroughly  mastered  during  the 
earlier  lessons  on  addition,  notation,  etc.,  with  the  kindergarten 
sticks  or  picture  numbers,  or  other  concrete  aids.  Each  term  as 
it  is  introduced  should  be  explained. 

I.  Its  Connection  with  Multiplication. — The  process  is  the 
inverse  of  multiplication,  and  depends  on  the  recollection  of  what 
has  been  learned  in  multiplication. 

Multiplication.  Division. 

2x8  =  16  16 -^2  =  8 

3x4=  12  i2-f3  =  4 

7x6  =  42  42-^7  =  6 

Let  the  class  examine  and  compare  these  on  the  B.  B.     Lead  them  to  see 
that  there  are — 

8  groups  of  2  in  16  or  2  groups  of  8  in  16. 
4         ,,  3  in  12  or  3         ,,  4  in  12. 

6         ,,  7  in  42  or  7         ,,  6  in  42. 

n.  Methods  of  Expression. — Give  these  next,  both  symbolic 

and  verbal. 

Verbal  Methods. 

{a)  Divide  16  by  2. 

\b)  How  many  2's  are  there  in  16? 

\c)  Divide  2  into  16. 

All  these  calculations  can   be   made   with   concrete  objects  first  and  then 
mentally.     Other  examples  should  be  given. 

m.  Its  Connection  with  Subtraction. — The  teacher  should 
now  connect  division  with  subtraction,  by  showing  that  it  is  a 
shortened  form  of  subtraction.  Thus,  on  the  ball  frame  show 
that— 

15  4-  5  =  3,  or  there  are  3  groups  of  5  in  15. 
15  -5-5-5  =  0;  i.e.,  3  groups  of  5  have  been  subtracted 
from  15  and  nothing  is  left,  hence  15 
is  composed  of  three  fives,  or  5  into 
15  goes  3.     Show  this  step  by  step. 
15  -  5  =  10 ;  first  position  ;  5  taken  away  and  10  left. 
10  -  5  =    5  ;  second  position  ;  5  taken  away  and  5  left. 
5  -  5  =    o ;  third  position  ;  another  5  is  taken  away  and  o  left. 
Similar  examples  should  then  be  worked  mentally. 

rv.  Short  Division  with  a  Remainder. — Demonstrate  with 
concrete  objects. 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Division. 
11^2  =  5 

The  number  of  groups  of 
2  is  5  and  the  remain- 
5  +  1  5-2  =  3|  der  is 

i.e.,  there  are  5  groups  of  2  in 
II  and  I  unit  is  left. 

Give  other  examples  for  practice,  still  working  first  in  the  concrete  and 
then  in  the  abstract,  e.g:  : — 

19  -^  3  =  6  +  I  Call  attention  to  the  remainder  in  each  case.     It 

23  +  4  =  5  +  3  is  always  less  than  the  divisor.     The  class  will 

45  -f  6  =  7  +  3  now  see  clearly  that  the  divisor  is  not  always  con- 

144-4  =  3  +  2  tained  an  even  number  of  times  in  the  dividend. 

By  this  stage  the  class  should  have  discovered  that  a  number  may  be 
divided  up  into  equal  groups  exactly,  or  into  equal  groups  with  some 
quantity  less  than  one  of  the  groups  remaining  over.  The  process 
of  Jinding  these  groups  is  called  division.  The  quantity  contained 
in  one  group  is  called  the  divisor.  The  number  to  be  divided  into 
groups  is  called  the  dividend.  The  number  of  groups  into  which 
it  is  divided  is  called  the  quotient.  What  is  left  over  (if  any)  is 
called  the  remainder. 

v.  Harder  Examples. —Take  as  an  example  5729  +  7. 

Decompose  the  dividend  5729  so  far  as  possible  into  multiples  of  7;  i.e., 
into  quantities  containing  an  equal  number  of  7's  without  a  remain- 
der, thus : — 

5729  =  5600  +  70  +  59  then 

7)5600  +  70  +  59 


800  +  10  +    8  and  3  over. 
Which  is  expressed  shortly  thus : — 
7)5729 

818  +  3 

The  children  will  now  be  prepared  to  receive  the  rule  as  generally  given, 
and  to  understand  the  processes  which  that  rule  embodies. 

VI.  Division  by  Factors. — Take  as  an  example  349  +  42. 

Decompose  both  divisor  and  dividend. 

42  =  6  X  7  ;  and  349  =  300  +  48  +  1 

Then  we  have  6)300  +  48  +  1 


50+8  and  I  remainder. 
6)349 


58  +  1     i.e.,  58  groups  of  6  and  i  unit  as  remainder. 
Now  decompose  58  into  56  +  2 
Then  7)56  +  2 

8  and  2  remainder.       i,e.,     7)58 

8  +  2 


ARITHMETIC.  113 


The  whole  process  is  then  shown  as — 
J6)349 


4.  I 


7)58  +  1=58  groups  of  6  and  i  unit  left. 


8  +  2  =  8  groups  of  42  and  2  sixes  left. 

For  total  remainder  we  have — 

2  groups  of  6  =  12 
and  I  unit       =    i 

.'.  Total  remainder  =  13 
Which  is  found  thus  2x6  +  1 
Answer  8  +  13  over. 

Rule. — Factor  the  divisor,  and  divide  the  dividend  by  the  first 
factor ;  then  divide  its  quotient  by  the  next  factor.  Finally  multiply 
the  last  remainder  and  the  first  divisor,  and  add  in  the  other  remainder 
{if  any),  and  this  will  give  the  correct  remainder. 

Divisibility  of  Numbers. — A  number  is  divisible  by — 

1.  Two,  if  its  units  digit  is  measured  by  2.     The  reason  is  obvious. 

2.  Three,  if  the  sum  of  its  digits  is  measured  by  3.  This  will  be  explained 
under  the  divisibility  for  9,  as  3  is  a  factor  of  9,  and  a  number  divisible  by  9  is 
thus  divisible  by  3. 

3.  Four,  if  the  units  and  tens  divide  by  4,  for  100  is  divisible  by  4. 

4.  Five,  if  the  units  digit  is  5  or  o,  for  all  products  of  5  end  in  5  or  o. 

5.  Six,  if  the  number  is  divisible  by  2  and  3,  for  2  x  3  =  6. 

6.  Seven,  a  test  of  divisibility  is  known  for  7,  but  it  is  best  done  by  trial. 

7.  Eight,  if  the  number  expressed  by  its  3  lowest  digits  is  measured  by  8, 
for  1000  is  divisible  by  8. 

8.  Nine,  if  the  sum  of  its  digits  is  measured  by  9.     Take  57978  as  an  example. 

Decompose  57978  into  50000  +  7000  +  900  +  70  +  8. 

Now  50000  =  9  X  5555  +  5^  It  will  be  observed  that  the 

and    7000  =  9  X     777  +  7  I  quantity   is  made   up    of 

and      900  =  9  X      99  +  9  r  factors  of  g  +  remainders 

and        70  r=  9  X         7  +  7  I  which  are  the  same  as  the 

and          8  =                   +  8y  digits  in  the  number. 

9.  Ten,  if  the  number  has  a  cypher  in  the  units.     The  reason  is  obvious, 

10.  Eleven,  if  the  difference  between  the  sums  of  the  digits  in  alternate  places 
is  o,  or  is  measured  by  11.     For  any  number  as  6743  is  composed  of — 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  number 
is  composed  oi  factors  of  11  + 
or  -  remainders  which  are  the 
same  as  the  digits  of  the  number. 
It  will  also  be  noticed  that  the 
signs  run  alternately. 
Take  another  example  :  20603. 

Sum  of  the  odd  places  =  3  +  6  +  2  =  11. 
,,       ,,      even  places  =  0  +  0  =0. 

Divide  each  by  11  and  you  get  the  same  remainder  (o).  Hence  a  number 
divided  by  1 1  when  the  sum  of  the  odd  figures  and  the  sum  of  the  even 
figures  each  divided  by  1 1  leaves  the  same  remainder. 

8 


3  = 

+  3' 

40  = 

4 

X 

X 

II 

-  4 

700  = 

7 

X 

9 

X 

II 

+  7 

6000  = 

6 

X 

91 

X 

II 

-  6 

114  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Short  Methods. — Where  practicable,  the  teacher  should  teach 
such  short  methods  as  the  following:  — 

1.  To  divide  by  625.     Multiply  by  i6  in  i  line,  and  mark  of  4  places. 

For  ^"5  X  16  ^ 
1000 

2.  To  divide  by  •623.     Multiply  by  16  and  mark  off  i  place. 

For  — ^-  X  —  =  •62'}. 
1000       10  -^ 

IiONG-  DIVISION. — Work  an  easy  example  by  both  methods, 

and  let  the   class  thus  discover  the  reason  why  the  process  is 

called   long.     They  will  readily  observe  that  there  is  less  work 

done  mentally  by  this  method,  hence  its  name. 

Take  as  an  example  6863  -^  g. 

Short  Division.  Long  Division. 

9)6300  +  540  +18  +  5  9)6863(700  +  60  +  2 

6300      =  9  X  700 


700  +60+2  and  5  over. 

563  subtracting 

Which  is  written  thus  : —  540  =  g  x     60 

9)6863  

23  subtracting 

762  +  5  18  :=  9  X       2 

5     subtracting 
Which  is  written  thus  : 
The  class  will  see  that   the   decomposition   is   the  9)6863(762 

same  in  each  case,  and  that  the  principle  ruling  the  63 

decomposition  is  to  get   numbers  which   are  multiples  

of  the  divisor,  and  that  this  is  done  in  each  case  ex-  56 

cept   the  last.      The  rule   could  then   be   given,    and  54 

other  examples  worked,  gradually  increasing  in  diffi-  

culty.     The  decomposition  should  be  pointed   out  in  23 

each  case.      It   will   always   be  found  to  be  the  sub-  18 

stratend.     The  work  should  then  be  set  out   in   the  

ordinary  way.  5 

If  there  is  any  lack  of  comprehension,  the  process  might  be  further  illus- 
trated as  follows : — 
6863  There  are  two  points  to  notice. 

=  700  -f  563  remainder      (i)  Each   remainder    becomes  a 

9  new  dividend  until  the  last 

563  is  too  small ;  i.e.,  until  the 

—    60  -f    23  remainder  remainder   is   less  than  the 

9  divisor. 

23  (2)  That  the  answer  is  composed 

—      2  -^      5  remainder  of  the  sum  of  the  quotients 

9  -f-  the  last  remainder. 

COMPOUND  RUIjES. 

Meaning^  of  Term. —By  this  phrase  we  understand  calcu- 
lations made  in  money  and  the  various  weights  and  measures.  In 
the  simple  rules  we  have  to  deal  with  quantities  formed  on  um 


ARITHMETIC.  115 

regular  denomination  with  a  fixed  relative  value,  which  is  regular 
and  dependent  on  the  position  of  the  digits  expressing  those 
numbers.  Thus  m  the  number  in,  each  figure  to  the  left  is  ten 
times  the  value  of  the  figure  to  its  right.  It  can  be  expressed 
thus : — 

III  =  100  +  10  +  I 

=  (10  X  10)  +  (10  X  i)  +  I 

=  (100  X  i)  +  (10  X  i)  +  I 

And  this  is  always  the  case,  although  it  is  not  always  so  obvious ; 
e.g.,  take  the  number  384,  which  can  be  thus  decomposed : — 

384  =  300  +  80  +  4 

=  (3  X  100)  +  (8  X  10)  +  (4  X  i) 

=  (3  X  10  X  10)  +  (8  X  ID  X  i)  +  (4  X  i) 

=  10  times  10  times  3  +  10  times  i  times  8+1  times  4. 

But  this  is  not  the  case  in  the  compound  rules.  We  make  calcu- 
lations to  different  bases  or  denominations  ;  e.g.,  pounds,  shillings, 
pence,  farthings ;  tons,  cwts,  etc.  The  principle  is  always  the 
same  practically;  the  "carrying"  only  differs.  It  will  then  be 
noticed  that  there  is  a  combination  of  the  simple  and  of  some- 
thing else.  This  combination  is  called  compound,  and  the  rides  dealing 
with  such  combinations  compound  rules. 

Explanation  of  Signs. — Pounds  (£),  shillings  (5),  pence  (d), 
should  be  explained  to  the  class.  They  are  all  derived  from  Latin 
words,  which  were  the  names  of  certain  coins  used  by  the  Romans  ; 
and  in  each  case  the  first  letter  of  the  Latin  name  is  used  as  the 
symbol.  The  words  might  be  written  on  the  B.B.,  but  the  class 
need  not  yet  be  asked  to  learn  them.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  the 
present  to  illustrate  their  origin.  The  words  are  Libra,  Solidus, 
Denarius,  Quadrans  (farthings  used  to  be  represented  by  Q.). 
Treat  the  other  symbols  similarly,  as  they  are  wanted  (cwts.,  qrs., 
lbs.,  etc.).  The  tables  and  their  symbols  should  be  gradually 
introduced,  only  the  most  common  given,  and  examples  should  be 
based  upon  them.  It  will  be  necessary  to  point  out  that  farthings 
are  now  expressed  as  parts  of  a  penny,  thus  : — 

\  =  one-fourth  of  a  penny         =  i  farthing. 

^  =  one-half  of  a  penny  =  i  halfpenny. 

^  =  three-fourths  of  a  penny  =  3  farthings. 
How  Taught,— The  compound  rules  should  be  taught  by 
Comparison  and  Contrast  with  the  Simple  Rules.  The  two  may  be 
connected,  and  by  carefully  framed  examples  the  class  may  be 
led  to  discover  the  rules  for  compound  addition  for  themselves. 
But  first  of  all  the  necessary  tables  should  have  been  learned, 


ii6  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

and  plenty  of  mental  exercises  should  be  given  on  them.     Set  the 
following  example  on  B.B. :  — 
£  s.     d. 


£ 

5. 

d. 

/. 

3 

4 

2 

I 

5 

9 

7 

2 

6 

8 

3 

3 

2 

6 

8 

2 

i6 

27 

20 

8 

I 

I 

2 

— 

— 

— 

2  +  0 

17 

28 

22 

1+8  I    +    ID 

(a)  Make  a  simple  addition  of  each  column,  and  let  the  class  add  them. 

[b)  The  "compound"  element  comes  in  in  two  ways: — 

1.  In  the  conversion  of  the  total  in  each  case ;    e.g. ,  22  pence  become  i 

shilling  and  10  pence. 

2,  In    the   carrying ;  22    pence   do  not  give  2  and   carry   2   as   in  simple 

addition,  but  the  10  pence  are  placed  under  the  pence  column  and 

the  T  shilling  is  carried  to  the  shillings  column. 
The  difference  will  thus  be  seen  to  be  one  of  denomination.  In  the  simple 
the  sum  is  divided  by  10  always  ;  in  the  compound  by  20,  12,  or  4,  or  other 
numbers  depending  on  the  tables  used.  The  reason  for  leaving  the  farthings 
blank  should  be  pointed  out.  The  principle  is  the  same  for  compound  sub- 
traction. 

The  Compound  Rules  Criticised. 

1.  They  are  cumbrous  and  difficult  to  learn. 

2.  They  are  extravagant  in  time  and  energy. 

3.  The  Metric  System,  if  adopted  in  its  entirety,  would  render  their  exist- 

ence unnecessary,  and  would  make  the  work  simpler,  swifter,  and  more 
economical. 

4.  They  militate  against  our  trade  on  the  authority  of  good  judges.     Foreign 

nations,  in  some  cases,  are  showing  some  reluctance  to  be  bothered 
with  trade  transactions  involving  a  knowledge  of  our  cumbrous  system. 

5.  Nevertheless,  there  are  serious  objections  to  changing  the  system,  although 

it  would  be  better  if  a  national  effort  were  made  to  overcome  these. 
The  change  would  be  a  shock  to  custom,  to  habit,  and  to  business.  It 
would  also  be  very  expensive,  for  the  coinage  would  have  to  be  recast. 
There  is  also  the  reluctance  of  adults  to  be  bothered  with  the  learning 
of  any  new  system. 

COMPOUND  SUBTRACTION. 

I.  Recapitulate  simple  subtraction  as  applied  separately  to  pounds,  shillings, 
pence,  and  farthings,  thus  : — 

£  5.  d.  /. 

1684  384  261  813 

1297  19^  ^99  724 


2.  Give  easy  examples  of  compound  subtraction,  e.g. : — 

£    s.    d.  £    5.     d. 

18  19  lof  728  16     8^ 

4  13     5i  613     8     3I 


Such  examples  as  these  present  no  difficulty,  and  are  understood  at  once. 


ARITHMETIC. 


117 


3.  Follow  with  more  difficult  examples  in  which  "  borrowing"  is  necessary. 
The  result  can  be  obtained— 

(a)  By  the  method  of  decomposition. 

(b)  By  the  method  of  equal  additions. 

(c)  By  the  method  of  complementary  addition. 

By  Decomposition. 

£    s.    d. 
1983  14    4i 

6g4  16     8§  = 


£     s.     d. 

1982  33  15I 

694  15     8| 

1288  17     7i 


Equal  Additions. 


£    s. 
1983  14 

6g4  16 


£     s.   d. 

=   1983  34  i6| 
=  6g5  17  gi 

1288  17  74 


Complementary  Addition. 

£     s.    d. 

1983   14     4ir 


6g4  16     8| 
1288  17     7^  =  the  complementary  addition  made. 


4.  Introduce  examples  with  missing  denominations.      The   process  is  the 
same  as  before.     Take  as  an  example  ^^19  os.  ^d.  -  £7  8j.   e^jd. 

Decomposition.       Equal  Additions.    Compl.  Addition. 


£   s.  d. 

ig  0  4 
7  8  5i 

£  s.  d. 
18  19  151 

7  8  si 
11  II  io| 

£    s.    d. 
ig  20  i6| 
8  9  6i 

II  II  io| 

£   s.  d. 

ig  0  4 

7  8  5i 

II  II  lOj 

11  II  lof 

COMPOUND  MUIiTIPIiICATTON. 

By  One  Figure. 

I.  The  class  should  have  previously  learned  the  pence  and  shillings  tables, 
and  should  have  received  plenty  of  exercises  in  mental  arithmetic 
preparatory  to  compound  multiplication.  Assuming  this  to  have 
been  done,  the  pupils  should  then  be  ready  mentally  to  proceed  as 
follows : — 

Take  as  an  example  ;^i8  135.  y'^d.  x  5. 

£   s.  d. 

£18      X  5  =  £90      =  ;^90  =  go     o     o 

135.  X  5  =  655.  =  350  =  350 
jd.  X  5  =  35</.  =  o  211  =0  211 
I      X  5  =     15/.  =       0031=003! 


;^i8  13s.  7|rf.  X  5 


£9^  85.  2^, 


ii8  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

2.  Set  out  the  example  on  the  B.B.,  and  work  it  by  the  ordinary  method. 

The  class  will  readily  understand   the   reason   of  the   rule  from  the 

analysis  given  in  the  previous  step.     They  will  see 

£    s.     d.  that  i\\G  principle  is  the  same  as  in  simple  multipli- 

i8  13     7J^         cation,  but  that  the  denominatiotis  vary.     In  simple 

5  multiplication    it    is    always    10 ;    in    compound    it 

7         varies,  being  10  for  the  pounds,  because  10  is  the 

93     8     2|         basis  ;  20  for  the  shillings,  because  205.  =  £1;    12 
for  the  pence,  because  i2d.  =  is.  ;  and  being  4  for 
the  farthings,  because  4  farthings  —  id. 

The  class  thus  discovers  what  Xh^ practice  is,  viz. ,  to  reduce  each  denomination 
to  the  next  higher  denomination,  e.^. — 

farthings  to  pence  (d) 
pence       to  shillings  (s) 
shillings  to  pounds  (£). 

3.  Plenty  of  exercises  should  be  given  for  practice. 
By  Two  Fig^ures. 

Take  as  an  example  £^  i^s.  6\d.  x  49. 

I.  Take  the  same  digits  41362  and  multiply  as  in  simple  multiplication— 
41362  49  decomposed  =  40  +  9 

49 


372258  =  9  X  41362 

■65448  =  40  X  41362 


2026738  =  49  X  41362 

2.   Now  factor  or  decompose  49  in  other  ways  and  compare  them- 
49  =  40  +  9  =  (4  X  10)  X  9 
£  5.     d. 


4  13     6|  X  9 


4b 

15 

5 

4 

187 
42 

I 
I 

8 

225 

3 

6i 

10  X  £4  135.     6^d. 


(4  X  10)  X  £4  13^-     ^id. 
9  X  £^  135.     6jrf. 

49  X  £4  13^-     ^d. 

3.   Lead  the  class  to  grasp  intelligently  the  following  facts : — 
(a)  Factor  or  decompose  the  multiplier. 
(6)  Multiply  each  factor  in  its  proper  position. 

(c)  Multiply  farthings  and  reduce  to  pence  ;  multiply  pence  and  reduce  to 
shillings  ;  shillings  to  pounds. 

(d)  Never  place  a  cypher  in  the  farthing  product — in  the  example  given  it  would 
convert  the  5^.  into  50^.  if  a  cypher  were  added  to  indicate  the  absence  of 
farthings. 

(e)  The  principle  is  the  same  both  in  simple  and  compound,  but  the  denomina- 
tion is  different. 

DifFerent  Methods. — There  are  several  methods  of  working 
multipHcation — (i)  By  factors  ;  (2)  By  decomposition  ;  (3)  Without 
factors  or  decomposition  ;  (4)  By  special  method  ;  (5)  By  practice, 


ARITHMETIC. 


iig 


Here  the  first  four  methods  only  will  be  considered.     The  same 
example  should  be  worked  by  each  method   on   the    B.B.,   the 
teacher  explaining  each  step  as  he  introduces  it ;  but  this  should 
not  be  done  too  soon,  as  it  brings  obscurity  instead  of  clearness. 
By  Factors. 

£   s.    d. 

4  13     6^  X  (7  X  7). 
7 


Special  Method. 

£   s.    d. 

4  13     6^  X  (50  -  I). 
10 


32  14     gj  =  7  times  top  line. 
7 


46  15 


ID  times  top  line. 


229     3     6^  =  7  X  7  times  top  line.     233   17     i     =  5  x  10  times  top  line. 

4  13     6J  =:  I  times  top  line. 


229     3     6^  =  (50  -  i)  =  49  lines. 


Direct  Method. 

£    s.    d. 

4  13     6i 
49 

229     3     61 


farthings. 

49  49 

2 

4)98 
24^ 


pence. 

49 
6 

294 
24 

12)318 
26-6 


shillings. 
49 
13 

147 
49 

637 
26 

20)663 


pounds. 
49 
4 

196 
33 

229 


33  "3 
The  method  by  decomposition  has  already  been  demonstrated. 

Remarks  on  the  Methods. 

1.  It  is  claimed  that  the  direct  method  ensures  greater  accuracy,  but  it  is 

long  and  tedious  in  the  setting  out.  It  dispenses  with  the  necessity  for 
learning  the  compound  tables,  but  what  it  may  gain  in  accuracy  it  un- 
doubtedly loses  in  time. 

2.  The  special   method   is  the  best.     Special  methods  usually  are  when 

available.  The' multiplication  of  10  is  easier  than  that  of  7,  while  to 
subtract  the  top  line  is  easier  than  to  multiply  by  9  and  add. 

3.  Next  to  the  special  method  factoring  should  be  used  where  possible. 

4.  The  method  of  decomposition  is  the  one  usually  employed,  because  it 

lends  itself  to  all  cases. 

5.  Eventually  all  methods  should  be  taught. 

(a)  The  mental  training  is  better.  It  helps  to  break  the  unintelligent  rule  of 
thumb  work,  now  rapidly  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past  in  our  schools.  It 
develops  more  mental  resource  by  more  fully  revealing  the  truths  contained. 

(6)  It  cultivates  perception,  and  so  gives  greater  practical  skill.  The  child  is 
taught  to  see  readily  the  several  methods  of  solution  available. 

(c)  It  develops  confidence  from  a  recognised  wealth  of  working  means. 

(d)  It  adds  interest  from  the  variety  of  treatment. 

COMPOUND  DIVISION.— Compound  division  is  the  arith- 
pietic  process  by  which  we  find  hpw  many  times  ope  compound 


I20  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

quantity  is  contained  in  another,  or  by  which,  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible, we  divide  a  given  compound  quantity  into  a  given  number 
of  equal  parts.  As  in  simple  division,  the  process  may  be  either 
"  short "  or  "  long,"  but  the  principle  involved  is  the  same  in  each  case, 
and  is  merely  an  adaptation  of  the  simple  rule.  The  divisor  may 
be  either  an  abstract  quantity  as  492 ;  or  a  concrete  quantity  like 
£14  13s.  7|d.     The  teacher  must  deal  with  abstract  divisors  first. 

"Wlien  the  Divisor  is  an  Abstract  Number. 
Short  Division. — Take  as  an   example  £g  18s.  ^^d.  -^  4,  and 
explain  the  work  as  follows  : — 

£    s.     d. 
4)9  18     3^ 
2     g     6f  +  2 

=     £2  +  £1  over,  or  20s.  over. 


£9 
4 
s.  18  +  20  38 

4 
57 
4 
£4 
4  4 


4 

d. 

3  + 

24 

4 

/. 

2  + 

12 

95.  +  2s.  over,  or  24^.  over. 
6d.  +  3^.  over,  or  12/.  over. 
f  +  2/.  over. 


The  teacher  should  then  expect  the  class  to  discover  the  rule,  and  to  get  a 
thorough  grasp  of  the  following  truths  : — ■ 

(fl)  £9  contain  2  groups  of  £4  and  £i  over,  or  20s. 

(6)  i8s.  and  the  20s.  over  give  38s.,  which  contain  9  groups  of  4s.  and  2s.  over, 

or  24^. 
(c)  3^.  and  24^.  give  27^.,  which  contain  6  groups  of  4^.  and  3d.  or  12/.  over. 
\d)  \  or  2/.  and  12/.  give  14/.,  which  contain  3  groups  (|)  of  4,  and  2/.  over. 

The  rule  might  then  be  stated  by  the  class  in  some  such  words  as  these  : — 
Find  how  many  times  the  divisor  (4)  is  contained  in  the  highest  de- 
nomination {£g)  of  the  dividend,  and  place  the  result  in  the  quotient  under 
that  denomination ;  then  reduce  the  remainder  {£1)  to  the  next  lower  de- 
nomination {shillings),  and  add  them  to  the  shillings  in  the  dividend 
(18  +  20) ;  then  find  how  many  times  the  divisor  (4)  is  contained  in  385., 
and  place  the  result  in  the  quotient  under  the  shillings;  and  proceed 
similarly  with  the  remaining  terms  of  the  dividend. 

Iiong  Division. — Long  division  presents  no  new  principle.  As 
in  simple  division,  the  principle  is  the  same  as  in  short  division, 
but  less  work  is  done  mentally,  and  more  is  set  out  on  the  paper. 
The  example  given  above  might  be  worked  by  long  division,  and 
the  two  processes  compared.  The  teacher  should  aim  at  neat 
methods  of  setting  out  the  work.  The  second  method  given  here 
is  neater  than  the  first, 


ARITHMETIC. 


(I) 


£  s.     d.  £ 

4)9  i8  3^2 
8 

5. 
9 

6J 

(2) 

£s.     d.  £  s.     d. 
4)9  18  34(2  9  6| 
8 

I 

20 

I 
20 

4)38(95. 
36 

36 

2 
12 

2 
12 

4)27(6rf. 
24 

27 
24 

3 

4 

4)14(1 
12 

3 
4 

14 
12 

The  Compound  Tables. — Their  common  uses  may  be  briefly 
enunciated  as  follows  : — 

1.  Money.— For  buying  and  selling.  Wages,  interest,  discount,  rent,  etc., 
are  really  cases  of  buying  and  selling. 

2.  Avoirdupois. — Coals,  bread,  potatoes,  butter,  cheese,  and  many  other 
articles  of  domestic  and  everyday  life  are  bought  by  avoirdupois  ;  in  the  trades, 
tons  of  iron,  stone,  minerals,  etc.,  are  bought  and  sold;  in  the  manufactures, 
for  the  measurement  of  force,  of  cargoes,  loads,  and  our  own  weight ;  the  weight 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  an  infinity  of  ways,  this  table  is  in  constant  use. 

3.  Liquid. — This  will  include  ale  and  beer  measure  and  wine  measure.  But 
beyond  barrels  and  gallons  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  go.  Milk,  beer,  porter, 
etc.,  are  bought  by  the  masses  in  small  quantities — the  half  pint,  the  pint — 
rarely  in  quarts,  gallons,  or  barrels.  Stout  is  usually  sold  by  the  bottle,  wine 
by  the  bottle  also ;  spirits  in  small  quantities  and  by  the  bottle.  Non-intoxi- 
cating drinks  are  usually  sold  in  bottles,  while  water  is  generally  measured  by 
gallons. 

4.  Long  Measure. — For  measuring  distance,  great  or  small ;  e.g: ,  a  man 
walks  so  many  miles  ;  a  ship  steams  or  sails  so  many  knots  ;  one  runs  so  many 
yards  in  so  many  seconds,  etc.  It  is  largely  used  in  mathematical  geography 
and  in  astronomy,  in  all  sorts  of  trades,  in  shopping,  in  estimating  our  own 
height,  etc. 

8.  Square  Measure. — This  table  is  required  for  boys  only.  It  is  used  for 
surveying  land,  for  the  sale  of  carpets,  oil  cloths,  ordinary  cloths,  calicoes  and 
stuffs  ;  for  the  wood  trades,  like  the  lumber  trade,  carpentry,  and  cabinet  making  ; 
for  the  measurement  of  surfaces,  whether  land  or  water,  and  for  many  other 
purposes  which  will  be  within  the  experience  or  knowledge  of  the  children. 

6.  Cubic  Measure — For  the  estimation  of  bulk,  volumes,  gases,  solid 
bodies,  etc. 

7.  Time  Measure. — The  clock,  watch,  and  chronometer  sufficiently  indicate 
the  use  of  this  table.  Time  is  sometimes  a  measurement  of  space  to  be  covered, 
as  in  trains  and  boats ;  of  wages  to  be  paid,  as  with  workmen  ;  of  day  and 
night ;  of  weeks,  months,  years,  centuries,  cycles  of  tiine,  etg.  It  is  also  used 
in  longitude. 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


8.  Capacity. — Some  vegetables  and  fruits  fall  under  this  table.     We  speak 
of  a  bushel  of  potatoes,  a  sieve  of  apples,  a  peck  of  peas,  a  gallon  of  apples,  etc. 

9.  Troy  and  Apothecaries. — These  are  not  common  tables,  and  should  only 
be  taught  under  special  circumstances. 

In  teaching  the  compound  rules  under  weights  and  measures, 

the  same  methods  should  be  adopted  as  in  the  case  of  compound 

money  rules.     The  principles  will  be  the  same ;  the  tables  with 

their  varying  denominations  will  furnish  the  only  difference. 

REDUCTION— HOW  TO  TEACH  IT. 


Truths,  Rules,  Definitions. 


I.  Truths. 

1.  Quantities  can  be  and  are 
expressed  in  terms  of  the  same 
unit. 

2.  Quantities  can  be  changed 
from  one  denomination  to  an- 
other. 

II.  Definition. 

When  we  convert  or  change  a 
quantity  from  one  denomination 
to  another,  we  are  said  to  reduce 
it,  and  the  process  is  called  Re- 
duction . 

III.  Descending  Reduction. 

In  these  cases  the  change  is 
made  from  a  unit  of  higher  value 
to  one  of  lower  value. 

I.  Simple  Qualities. 

Reduce  £5  to  farthings. 
;^5 


100  shillmgs  in  £^. 
12 

1200  pence  in  ;^5. 
4 

4800  farthings  in  ;^5. 

£^  =  4800  farthings. 

2.  Mixed  Quantities. 

Quantities  are  often  expressed 
as  a  mixture  of  several  denomi- 
nationsj  e.g.,  ;f  18  12s.  ^^d.     Here 


Teaching. 


1.  I.  Show  a  sum  of  money  composed  of 
the  same  coins,  e.g.,  55.  in  5  separate  shil- 
lings ;  or  IS.  in  12  pennies ;  or  6c/.  in  12  half- 
pennies. The  quantity  or  sum  of  money  in 
each  case  is  expressed  in  terms  of  the  same 
unit. 

2.  Show  a  shilling  and  12  pennies.  We 
can  speak  of  it  as  a  shilling  or  12  pence. 
Show  a  penny  and  4  farthings.  We  can 
speak  of  it  as  a  penny  or  4  farthings.  In 
each  case  the  denomination  or  name  is 
changed. 

II.  The  class  should  now  give  a  defini- 
tion of  reduction.  If  they  fail  to  do  it  vary 
and  increase  the  examples  until  they  suc- 
ceed. 

They  must  notice  carefully  that  the 
values  of  these  quantities  are  not  altered 
by  the  reduction.  The  value  remains  the 
same ;  the  names  only  are  altered. 

III.  The  great  thing  in  reduction  is  to  see 
that  the  scholars  know  the  value  of  each 
denomination  as  they  reach  it.  To  ensure 
this  the  teacher  should  always  insist  on  the 
denominational  name  being  written  against 
each  step  in  the  reduction. 

1.  The  process  might  be  fully  explained 
thus : — 

First  Step. 

£1  =  20s. 

Then  £^  =  ^  x  205.  =  1005. 
Second  Step. 

15.   =   12d. 

Then    1005.  =  100  x  i2d.  = 

1 200d. 

Third  Step. 

Id.  =  4f. 

Then  1200^.  =  1200  x  4/.  = 
4800  farthings. 

Educe  "  descending  "  thus  : — 

A  shilling  is  less  than  £1 ;  a  penny  is  less 
than  a  shilling ;  a  farthing  is  less  than  a 
penny.  Hence  the  unit  becomes  less,  or 
descends  in  value  each  step,  and  the  process 
is  therefore  called  descending  reduction. 

2.  Reduce  £iS  i?s.  4^^^/.  to  farthings. 


ARITHMETIC. 
REDUCTION— HOW  TO  TEACH  IT— continued. 


123 


Truths,  Rules,  Definitions. 


we  have  four  denominations — 
pounds,  shillings,  pence,  far- 
things. 

Reduce — 

;^i8  I2S.  ^\d.  to  farthings. 
20 

372  shillings  in  ;^i8  12s.  ^^d. 
12 

4468  pence  in  ;^i8  12s.  ^\d. 
4 


Teaching. 


17874  farthings  in  ;^i8  12s.  ^{d. 
Rules  for  Mixed  Quantities. 

1.  Reduce  the  highest  denomi- 
nation {£)  to  the  next  lower 
(shillings),  and  add  in  the  odd 
shillings  (12). 

2.  Then  reduce  this  total  num- 
ber of  shillings  (372)  to  the  next 
lower  denomination  (pence),  and 
add  in  the  odd  pence  (4). 

3.  Then  reduce  the  total  num- 
ber of  pence  (4468)  to  the  next 
lower  denomination  (farthings), 
and  add  in  the  odd  farthings  (2). 

The  total  number  of  farthings 
is  the  answer. 

IV.  Ascending  Reduction. 

1.  Of  simple  cases  ;  e.g. : — 
Reduce     17874    farthings     to 

pounds  {£). 

2.  Of  mixed  cases ;  e.g. : — 
Reduce  2698  hrs.  12  mins.  50 

sees,  to  weeks. 


First  Form. 

(a)    £1   =  205. 

.-.  £18  =  18  X  20  =  3605. 
Add  the  odd  125. 

Total  =  3725. 
i.e.,  £1^  I2S.  =  3725. 
[h)  IS.  =  12  pence. 

.-.  3725.  =  372  X  12d.  =  4464^. 
Add  in  the  odd  pence     4 


Total  =  4468^. 
i.e.,  £1^  125.  4^.,  or  3725.  and  4^. 

=  4468^. 
{c)  id.  —  4.  farthings. 

.-.  4468^.  =  4468  X  4/.  =  17872/. 

Add  in  the  odd  farthings         2 


Total  =  17874/". 
i.e.,  ;£'i8  I2S.  4^rf.  =  17874  farths. 

Second  Form. 

The  links  between  the  respective  de- 
nominations can  then  be  shown  thus : — 

£    s.    d. 
18  12     ^^d. 
20 

360  -I-  12  =  372s. 
12 

4464  -h  4  =  4468(/. 
4 

17872  +  2  =  17874/. 

Third  Form. 

This  will  be  the  ordinary  form  as  shown 
opposite. 

The  teacher  should  now  vary  the  ex- 
amples by  working  cases  in  weights  and 
measures.  They  will  observe  that  the 
principle  is  the  same  in  all  cases,  the  de- 
nominations only  varying. 

The  class  should  then  be  able  to  state  the 
rules  for  mixed  reduction. 

IV.  Pursue  the  same  principle  as  in 
descending  reduction.  The  only  diiTerence 
is  one  of  process — the  substitution  of  divi- 
sion for  multiplication. 


THS  G.C.M.  OR  THE  H.C.F. —  This  process  is  known  as  find- 
ingthe  Greatest  Common  Measure  or  the  Highest  Common  Fagtor  pf 


124  ^  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

two  or  more  numbers.  The  children  should  be  familiarised  with 
both  terms,  but  perhaps  the  second  one  is  preferable.  The  con- 
nection between  the  two  terms  should  be  shown. 

1.  Take  as  an  example  the  H.C.F.  of  i68  and  280. 

168  =  3  X  7  X  8  .-.  3  is  a  factor  of  168 
and  7 

and  8        „         ,,         ,, 
280  =:  5  X  7  X  8  .-.  5    .  „         „      280 
and  7 

and  8        „         „         „ 
Now  7  is  found  in  both  .-.  it  is  a  common  factor  of  both, 
and    8         „         „         „         „         „         „         „         „ 
.•.7x8  or  56  is  a  common  factor  of  both. 

Then  we  have  3  factors  common  to  both,  7,  8,  and  56.     For  the  quantities 
can  be  expressed — 

as  5  X  7  X  8  =  280  or  as  5  X  56  =  280 

and  as  3  X  7  X  8  =  168  or  as  3  x  56  =  168. 

Of  these  3  common  factors  56  is  the  greatest  or  highest  .  •.  56  is  the  H.C.F. 
of  168  and  280. 

2.  Now  work  the  sum  by  the  ordinary  process,  explaining  the  rule  as  you  go. 

168)280(1 

168  The    rule    is    to   divide   the   smaller 

number  into  the  larger,  and  let  the 

112)168(1  divisor    of    one    step    become    the 

112  dividend  of  the  next,  until  there  is 

no    remainder.      The    last    divisor 

56)112(2  then  becomes  the  H.C.F. 

112 

3.  Then  illustrate  the  truth  of  the  process  in  the  following  way,  which  is 
recommended  for  its  simplicity  and  its  graphic  nature,  the  usual  methods  of 
explanation  being  a  little  too  difficult  for  some  of  the  children. 

56  X  3)56  X  5(1  By  this  method  the  pupil  sees  the 

56  X  3  reason  of  the  process,  and  notices 

that  56  is  a  common  measure  of 

56  X  2)56  X  3(1  the  two  numbers;  for  it  is  a  com- 

56  X  2  mon  factor  of  every  divisor,  divi- 

dend,  and  subtrahend  in  the  opera- 

56  X  1)56  X  2(2  tion.      It   is   therefore  common  to 

56  X  2  both,  and  as  it  has  been  shown  to 

be  the  greatest  factor,  it  is  there- 
fore the  Highest  Common  Factor  of  168  and  200. 

4.  The  Usual  Reason  for  the  Process  might  be  given  later  on  as  follows : 
Take  any  two  numbers,  as  35  and  112,  and  factor  them. 

35  =  7  X  5;  112  =  7  X  16. 
Then  7  is  a  common  factor  of  35  and  112  ; 
And  7  is  also  a  factor  of  their  sufn,  i.e.,  of  35  +  112,  or  147. 
And  7  is  also  a  factor  of  their  difference,  i.e.,  of  112  -  35,  or  tj. 
Also  7  is  a  factor  of  6  x  35,  or  any  other  multiple  of  35. 
And  7  is  a  factor  of  8  x  112,  or  any  other  multiple  of  112. 
f'rom  a  study  of  these  truths  the  class  ought  to  be  able  to  enunciate  the 
fgUQwing  propositign ;— r 


ARITHMETIC. 


125 


A  Common  Factor  of  any  two  numbers  is  also  a  factor  of  their  sum,  of  their 
difference,  and  of  any  multiple  of  either  of  them. 

The  reason  for  the  process  will  be  found  to  depend  on  this  proposition.     For 
take  the  two  original  numbers  168  and  280. 
Any  number  which  measures  280  and  168  also  measures  their  difference,  112. 
It  is  also  a  measure  of  the  difference  of  168  and  112,  i.e.,  56. 
It  therefore  measures  any  multiple  of  56,  as  1  x  56. 
And  therefore  since  56  is  a  factor  of  itself  and  of  U2,  it  is  also  a  factor  of  168  and 

280. 
Also  56  is  the  Highest  Common  Factor  of  the  given  numbers,  for  it  has  been 

shown  that  any  number  which  is  a  factor  of  168  and  280  is  also  &  factor  of 

56,  and  since  56  is  the  highest  factor  of  itself,  it  is  the  Highest  Common  Factor 

of  168  and  280. 

5.  As  soon  as  possible  the  teacher  should  accustom  the  class  to  set  their 
work  out  by  the  short  method,  as  it  is  much  neater  and  better  training. 
The  work  is  shown  in  parallel  columns,  more  of  it  being  done  mentally, 
the  answer  to  each  subtraction  only  being  shown. 

168  I  280 
56  I  112       56  being  the  H.C.F. 

IiEAST  COMMON  MUIiTTPLE. 

I.  Prime  Factors. — First  show  the  class  how  to  reduce  any 
given  number  to  its  prime  factors,  as  a  knowledge  of  this  is 
necessary  for  the  proper  understanding  of  the  process  by  which 
the  L.C.M.  is  found.     Take  7560  as  an  example. 


{a)  The  class  will  notice  that  the  factors  must  7 

be  prime,  i.  e. ,  they  are  divisible  by  no  o 

other  number. 

[b]  The   prime   factors    consist   of    all    the  3 

divisors  and  the  last  remainder.  3 

{c)   The    factors   multiplied  together  equal  2 

the  given  number,  e.g. —  2 

2 


7560 

1080 

360 

120 

20 
10 

5 


7x3x3x3x2x2x2x5  =  7560. 
H.  A   Multiple. — Next    lead   the    class   to    discover   what    is 
meant  by  a  multiple.     Take  any  three  numbers,  as  56,  108,  and 
360,  and  deal  with  them  thus  : — 

7  X  2  X  2  X  2  =1  56  (a)  The   class   is  to  note  that    in 

3x2x2x3x3  =  loS  each    case    we    have    found 

2x2x3x3x2x5  =  360  the    prime   factors   of    each 

number. 
(6)  That  56  is  a  multiple  of  7,  and  2,  and  2,  and  2. 
That  108  is  a  multiple  of  3,  2,  2,  3,  and  3. 
That  360  is  a  multiple  of  2,  2,  3,  3,  2,  and  5. 
The  term  multiple  should  then  be  compared  with  the  term  product,  with 
which  they  are  already  familiar. 

m.  A   Common   Multiple. — Take  the   prime  factors  of  the 
3  quantities  and  multiply  together  all  their  prime  factors,  e.g. — 


126  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

(7X2X2X2)x(3X2X2X3X3)x(2X2X3X3X2X5)=: 

2177280, 

Then  2177280  is  a  multiple  of  56,  for  it  contains  the  prime  factors  of  56. 
It  is  also  a  multiple  of  108,  for  it  contains  the  prime  factors  of  108. 
It  is  also  a  multiple  of  360,  for  it  contains  the  prime  factors  of  360. 
It  is  therefore  a  multiple  common  to  them  all,  i.e.,  it  is  a  common  multiple 
of  them  all. 

rv.  The  Least  Common  Multiple. 

(7  X  2  X  2  X  2)  is  a  wz</^i/>/^  of  56,  because  it  contains  (7x2x2x2) 
the  prime  factors  of  56. 

And  (7  x2x2X2)x(3X3X3)  is  a  wMZ^i/>/^  of  108,  because  it  con- 
tains (3x2x2x3x3)  the  prime  factors  of  108,  It  is  also  a  multiple 
of  56,  because  it  contains  (7x2x2x2)  the  prime  factors  of  56.  It  is 
thereifore  a  common  multiple  of  56  and  108. 

Again  (7  x  2  x  2  x  2)  x  (3  x  3  x  3)  x  (5)  is  a  multiple  of  360, 
because  it  contains  (2x2x3x3x2x5)  the  prime  factors  of  360.  It 
is  also  a  multiple  of  108,  for  it  contains  (3x2x2x3x3)  the  prime 
factors  of  108  ;  it  is  also  a  multiple  of  56,  for  it  contains  (7x2x2x2) 
the  prime  factors  of  56.  It  is  therefore  a  common  multiple  of  360, 
loS,  and  56.  It  is  also  the  least  common  multiple,  because  the  least 
number  possible  of  prime  factors  is  taken  to  produce  it.  Therefore 
7X2X2X2X3X3X3X  5  or  7560  is  the  least  common  multiple  o{  56, 
108,  and  360. 

How  to  Find  the  Ii.C.M. — Take  as  an  example  2,  4,  6,  7, 
21,  32. 

Now  4  =  2  X  2  ;  hence  2  is  a  factor  of  4,  and  4  is  a  multiple  of  2. 
And32  =  4x8;       „      4  „  32,    ,,32  „  4. 

And2i=7X3;       „      7  ,,  21,    ,,21  „  7. 

From  which  it  is  evident  that  if  one  number  contains  anothe?'  numbei'  an 
exact  number  of  times,  the  number  which  contains  the  other  is  a  tnultiple 
of  that  other.  Hence  we  may  leave  out  of  consideration  all  those  num- 
bers which  are  factors  of  other  numbers. 

Now  it  has  been  shown  that  2  is  a  factor  of  4, 
and  that  4  ,,         32, 

and  that  7  „  21, 

.-.  the  numbers  2,  4,  and  7  may  at  once  be  struck  out,  thus : — 

2  I  ^,  ^,  6,  X,  21,  32 


\      21,  16 
And  L.C.M.  =  2  x  21  x  16  =  672. 

Next  2  is  a  common  measure  of  6  and  32,  hence  divide  them  by  2, 
Next  3  is  a  factor  of  21,  and  can  therefore  be  struck  out. 
There  is  no  factor  beyond  unity  common  to  21  and  16,  hence  the  L.C.M. 
will  be  the  product  of  the  divisors  into  the  remaining  quotients  (21,  16). 
i.e.,  L.C.M.  =  2  X  21  X  16  =  672. 

Another  Method. — Reduce  2,  4,  6,  7,  21,  and  32  to  their  prime 
factors. 


ARITHMETIC.  127 

2=2  7=7 

4  =  2x2  21  =  3x7 

6=2x3  32   =  2X2X2X2X2 

Then  L. CM.  of  2  is  2. 
And  ,,  4  and  2  is  2  x  2. 

,,  ,,  6  and  4  and  2  is  3  x  2  x  2. 

,,  ,,  7  and  6  and  4  and  2  is  7x3x2x2. 

,,  „        21  and  7  and  6  and  4  and  2  is  7x3x2x2. 

„  „        32  and  21  and  7  and  6  and  4  and  2is2X2x2X2x 

2x7x3  =  672. 

The  first  method  is  the  safer  one,  and  a  harder  example  worked  by  that 
method  is  here  given. 

Find  L.C.M.  of  12,  16,  18,  28,  32,  40,  42. 
2  I  12,  1^%  18,  28,  32,  40,  42     16  is  contained  in  32. 


2  I    6  9,  14,  16,  20,  21 


2  I     !^,  9,     X>     ^)  io>  21     3  and  7  are  contained  in  21. 

3  I  9,  4,    5,  21 


3,  4,     5,  21 

L.C.M.  =  2x2x2x3x3x4x5x21  =  10080. 

VITIjGAR  FRACTION'S. — The  practice  adopted  in  many 
Arithmetics  of  postponing  the  teaching  of  fractions  until  after  the 
compound  rules  have  been  mastered  is  hardly  to  be  recommended. 
Where  a  child  has  mastered  the  four  simple  rules  there  is  no 
reason  why  he  should  not  at  once  proceed  to  learn  frac- 
tions, both  decimal  and  vulgar.  The  work  involved  is  at  least  as 
easy  as  that  involved  in  the  working  of  the  compound  rules,  and 
probably  easier.  When  all  those  rules  usually  found  intervening 
between  simple  division  and  fractions  are  learned,  they  can  then 
be  treated  with  more  accuracy  in  practice  and  more  profit  to  the 
mind.  There  will  be  no  rejecting  of  fractions  of  a  penny,  and  less 
restriction  on  the  kind  of  example  set  for  solution. 

The  idea  of  a  fraction  is  easily  given  to  children,  and  requires 
no  elaborate  teaching.  Two  apples  might  be  taken,  one  of  which 
might  be  cut  into  four  equal  parts,  and  the  other  into  four  unequal 
parts.  To  the  equal  parts  we  give  the  name  of  fractions,  and  to 
the  unequal  parts  fragments.  The  class  thus  gets  a  clear  idea  of 
the  fundamental  attribute  of  a  fraction,  viz.,  equality  of  division. 
There  remains  the  word  "  vulgar"  to  explain  as  meaning  "com- 
mon," and  the  class  will  then  understand  that  they  are  dealing 
with  common  fractions.  The  concrete  illustrations  can  be  multi- 
plied and  varied,  if  necessary. 


128 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Improper  Fractions  and  Mixed  Numbers. 

1.  First  explain  and  demonstrate  the  meaning  of  the  terms  Nume- 

rator and  Denominator. 

2.  Then  make  the  significance  of  a  fraction  clear  by  comparing  the 

sign  of  division  with  a  fraction  ;  e.g.,  -f  and  f.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  dots  are  mere  symbols  representing  any  integers,  or  that 
the  Numerator  and  Denominator  take  the  places  of  the  two  dots. 

3.  Change  Y'  ^^^^  ^  mixed  number.     The  class  will  understand  that 

there  is  a  unit  which  is  divided  into  5  equal  parts,  and  that  13 
such  parts  are  taken  to  form  the  fraction.  Obviously  there  is 
more  than  one  unit  in  the  fraction. 

4.  Demonstrate  with  kindergarten  cubes. 


5|l  |2|3  1^  |5  I  r  [2  |3  I     is^ 


SZX 


Show  a  unit  to  the  class.  It  contains  5  equal  cubes  or  parts.  Take 
13  such  cubes  and  build  up  units  from  them.  There  are  2  units 
and  3  cubes  left ;  i.e.,  2  units  and  f  of  a  unit,  which  may  be  ex- 
pressed as  2  +  f ,  and  is  expressed  thus  — 2f  •  This  is  called  a 
mixed  number,  because  it  is  a  mixture  of  whole  numbers  and  a 
fraction. 

The  converse  method  can  be  similarly  demonstrated. 

By  Diagram.— Draw  a  rectangle  and  divide  it  into  13  equal  parts. 

A  C  D  £ 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

1 

2 

3 

AC  =  I  unit    =  5  parts. 
CD  =  I  unit    =  5  parts. 
.•.  AD  =  2  units  =  10  parts. 
And  DE  =  f  units. 

.-.  AE  =  2f  units. 
But  AE  =  13  parts,  or  -V*^  units. 
.*.  -J^-    —  25-. 
Addition  and  Subtraction  of  Fractions. 

Vulgar  Fractions  can  only  be  added  or  subtracted  when  expressed  in  terms 
of  the  same  denomination.  The  meaning  of  this  must  be  demonstrated 
to  the  class.     Take  following  examples  : — 

Add  f  and  |.     Subtract  f  from  |. 
I.  Take  12  kindergarten  cubes  of  equal  size  and  build  these  up  into  a  unit. 
Divide  these  into  3  e^ual  parts,  as  A,  B,  and  C.     Then  separate  2  of 


A.  a  ^      -  O  C; 


these  parts  as  in  fig.  2.     The  class  will  perceive  that  there  are  2  parts 
out  of  3,  or  8  parts  out  of  12  ;  t 

i.e.,  there  are  §  or  t%. 


ARITHMETIC. 


129 


2.  Now  take  12  similar  cubes  and  divide  them  into  4  equal  parts,  as  D,  E, 
F,  and  G.     Now  separate  3  of  these  parts,  as  in  fig.  4.     The  class  will 


iFPPh-nrnvn    cirrivinri 


perceive  that  here  3  parts  out  of  the  4  have  been  removed,  or  9  parts 
out  of  12  ; 

i.e.,  there  are  f  or  y\. 

3.  Addition.— Let  the  class  count  the  cubes.     There  are  8  in  one  group  and 

9  in  the  other  ;  or 

8  +  9  =z  17. 

i.e.,  S  +  f  =  A  +  t'^  =  H  =  il  +  T^r  =  I  +  A  =  lA- 

4.  Subtraction. — There  are  9  cubes  in  one  and  8  cubes  in  the  other  group. 

Then  f  -  §  =  A  -  A  =  tV.      . 

5.  Now  explain  the  ordinary  arithmetic  process.     The  class  will  understand 

the  principle  of  the  work  with  the  teacher's  help.     If  not,  repeat  with 
cubes  and  supplement, with  diagram. 
Draw  a  line  AB,  and  divide  it  into  4  equal  parts.     Draw  AD  at  right  angles 
to  AB,  and  divide  it  into  3  equal  parts  of  the  same  length  as  the  parts 
in  AB.     Complete  the  parallelogram. 

Then  AEFB  =  f  or  ,-%,  A        K  B 

And  KGCB  =  f  or  /^. 
Adding  we  have§  +  |,or  t\  +  1%  =  H  =  ^A- 

Subtracting  we  have  f  -  §. 
i.e.,  KGCB  -  AEFB  =  |  -  §  =  ^\  -  ^\  =  ^^. 

6.  By  Money. — Deal  with  a  shilling.     Divide 

one  shilling  into  3  groups  of  A,d.  each, 
and  another  shilling  into  4  groups  of  3^^. 
each. 
Then  §  +  f  -  8rf.  +  grf.  ==  17^.  =  is.  5^.        Q       G  C 

Multiplication  of  Fractions. 

I.  To  Multiply  a  Vulgar  Fraction   by  an  Integer. — Take 

f  X  4  as  an  example. 

1.  By  Addition.-I  x  4  =  |  +  f  +  |  +  f  =  Y  =  2f  =  2^. 

2.  By  Diagram.— Take  f  x  3  as  an  example. 
Use  coloured  chalks  to  mark  the  various  divisions. 

As  the  new  numerator  will  contain  15  units,  15  divisions  will  be  required. 
The  pupil  will  soon  understand  this. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9H 

10 

n 

12 

A  M 


B 


K 


I  I  M  I  I  M  I  I 


0  N 


I 


Let  fig.  ABCD  =  unity,  i.e.,  it  will  contain  7  divisions. 
Then  AMND  =  f  of  a  unit 

and  AEFD  =  5  x  AMND  =  f  of  a  unit 
also  3  X  AEFD  =  3  x  f  =  AKLD  =  y. 
By  Money.— Use  a  guinea  as  the  unit  and  take  the  same  example. 
Then  f  of  a  guinea  =  3  shillings 
and  ^     ,,         „       =  5  X  3  =  15  shillings 
and  3  X  f     „         „       =  3  X  15  =  45  shillings 

=  2  guineas  +  3  shillings  =  2f  =  \*. 

9 


I30 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


I.  Other  Methods. 

(a)  Four  apples  may  be  taken  and  cut  into  8  equal  parts  each,  5  of 
these  parts  being  taken  in  each  case. 

(b)  Small  cubes  may  be  used.     Eight  would  form  a  figure  which  would 

represent  unity,  and  5  parts  could  be  taken  from  each. 

The  work  could  thus  be  set  on  the  B.B.,  taking  |  X  4  as  an  example. 

5  X  4  =  20 
and  5  eighths  x  4  —  20  eighths 

^  p        5     V     A     —    5X4    20    —    o4    —    ry\ 

t.e.,   -g-    X    4   —   — -g —   —   —^-   —    .s-g-   —    Z-^, 

Or  again,  5  eighths  x  4  =  20  eighths,  or  5  halves 
i.e.,  I  X  4  =  ^i^  =  f  =  2^. 

N.B. — When  possible  divide  the  denominator  for  choice,  since  the  product 
will  then  be  expressed  in  its  lowest  terms. 

Rule  Deduced. — To  multiply  a  vulgar  fraction  by  an  integer, 
either  multiply  the  numerator  or  divide  the  denominator  by  that  integer. 

U.  To  Multiply  a  Vulgar  Fraction  by  a  Vulgar  Fraction. — 

Take  f  of  f  as  an  example. 

1.  By  Diagram. — In  constructing  the  figure  let  the  pupils  notice  that  the 
2  denominators  must  be  multiplied  together  to  determine  the  number  of  little 
squares  necessary,  i.e. ,  they  represent  a  rectangle  6  by  4. 

Draw  AB  and  divide  it  into  6  equal  parts.  Draw  AD  at  right  angles  to 
AB  and  equal  to  4  of  these  equal  parts.  Complete  the  rectangle  ABCD. 
Through  each  of  the  points  of  division  draw  lines  parallel  to  AB  and  AD.  Then 
let  ABCD  =  unity. 

Then  AEFB  -  f  of  ABCD 
and  AELK  =  ^  of  AEFB  =  i  of  | 
and  AEGH  -  f  of  AEFB  =  f  of  f . 
Then  AEGH  is  the  figure  required. 

But  AEGH  contains  15  squares, 
and  the  total  number  of  squares  is 
24,  .'.  AEGH  is  ^f  of  the  whole. 
I.e.,  ^  X  -J  —  i^f. 

2.  By  Money. 

Take  f  of  f  of  ;^r  as  an  example. 

Jof£i  :=  5s. 

f  of  ;^i  =  3  X  5  -  155. 
and  ^  of  f     =  ^  of  15  =  2s.  6d. 
and  f  of  f     =  5  X  2s.  6d.  =  12s.  6d. 
i.e.,  i  X  I     =  i^f  =  I  of  £1  =  125.  6d. 

3.  Generally. 

To  find  f  off,  the  f  must  be  divided  into  4  equal  parts,  and  3  of  these 

parts  must  be  taken. 

Then  each  part  is  ^x-^j  and  3  such  parts  =  irx'^  x  3  =  fx"!  —  if  • 
But  f  of  f  is  the  same  as  f  of  f,  for  it  means  that  f  must  be  divided 

into  6  parts,  and  therefore  each  part  is  ^§^,  and  5  such  parts  =  f^f  =  ^. 

Rule  Deduced. — To  multiply  by  a  vulgar  fraction,  multiply  by 
its  numerator  and  divide  the  product  by  its  denominator ;  or  to  multiply 


ARITHMETIC. 


131 


a  fraction  by  a  fraction,  multiply  the  numerators  for  a  new  numerator 
and  the  denominators  for  a  neiv  denominator. 

m.  To  Prove  Multiplier   and  Multiplicand  can  be  Inter- 
changed    "Without     Altering     the     Product. — To    show     that 
multipHcand  x  multiplier  =  multiplier  x  multiplicand. 
i.e.,  S  X  f  =  I  X  §. 
Do  this  by  diagram,  for  the  diagrams  are  useful  to  show  the  pupils  how  the 
product  of  2  or  more  fractions  may  be  smaller  than  either  of  the  factors. 
This  is  otherwise  a  hard  matter  for  the  young  mind  to  grasp,  as  it  is 
apparently  contrary  to  all  their  previous  experience. 
Let  ABCD  =  the  unit 
then  AEFB  =  f  of  ABCD 
and  AEG H  -  »  of  AEFB 

=  f  of  I  of  ABCD (i.) 

6 


A 

H          B 

■ 

^ 

^P 

H 

w 

w. 

G 

K 

Again  let  ABCD  be  the  unit 


then 

ADKH 

^f  of  ABCD 

and  AEGH 

=  ^of  ADkH 

=  fof^ofABCD 

(ii. 


Hence  comparing  (i.)  and  (ii.)  we  see  that  f  x  §  = 


=  It 


for  both 


equal 


ithout  altering  the  product. 


the  multiplier  and  multiplicand  can  both  be  interchanged 


B 


Examples.- 

\)  =  yV    by 


rv.    Harder 

Show    that    i  (i  - 
diagram  (scholarship). 

Note. — As  the  denominator  of  the 
product  is  24  that  number  of  squares 
will  be  required. 

Let  ABCD  =  unity  =  t| 

then  each  square  =  ^j 

Now  AEFD  ^  8  squares  =  ^\  =  ^ 

and  AG  HE  =  6  squares  =  tj\  =  \ 


D        L       F  C 


132  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Then  AEFD  -  AEHG  =  GDFH  =  2  squares  and  the  |  of  2  squares 
=  I     square    (KHFL)    .-.    ^    (AEFD  -  AEHG)  =  KHFL  =  ^\  ;    i.e., 


DIVISION  OF  FRACTIONS. 

Take  as  an  example  |^  -f  f .     Here  we  have  to  find  a  quotient  which, 
when  muhipHed  by  f ,  shall  give  the  product  f . 

Then  f  of  this  quotient  =  4 
therefore  7     ,,  ,,  =  f  -f  6  or  -g-^g- 

and  therefore  this  quotient  =  -g-^^  x  7  or  4^| 
but  4x7  =  4  X  ^ 
therefore  4  ^  f  =  |  x  |. 
That  is,  to  divide  one  fraction  by  another  invert  the  divisor  and  mul- 
tiply the  dividend  by  the  fraction  thus  inverted ;  or  multiply  the  fraction 
by  the  reciprocal  of  the  divisor. 

MECHANICAIi  AIDS  FOR  TEACHING  FRACTIONS.  - 

There  are  several  of  these  upon  the  market  now,  and  the  enter- 
prise of  different  publishers  keeps  adding  to  their  number.  They 
are  usually  advertised  with  illustrations  and  explanations,  and 
where  the  pupils  cannot  obtain  the  real  thing,  they  are  advised  so 
far  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain  specimens  of  these  explanatory 
advertisements  and  to  paste  them  in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose. 
Two  only  are  mentioned  here  as  being  typical,  viz.,  The  Allied- 
Colour  Fraction  Chart,  and  Cowharn's  Fractions  at  a  Glance. 

The  Allied-Colour  Fraction  Chart,— This  chart  illustrates 
the  elementary  principles  of  fractions  and  their  relations  to  other 
fractions  by  means  of  related  colours.  The  chart  consists  of 
twelve  bars  printed  in  various  colours,  each  being  distinctly 
marked  from  unity  up  to  twelfths  respectively.  It  is  claimed  for 
it  that  it  is  invaluable  in  teaching  mental  arithmetic,  and  that  it 
is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  various  efforts  made  to  represent 
graphically  to  the  eye  the  comparative  values  of  different  simple 
fractions.  By  means  of  this  attractive,  brightly-coloured  chart, 
it  is  asserted  that  the  task  is  rendered  much  easier  and  more 
pleasant.  The  bars  are  all  the  same  size,  and  by  using  similar 
colours  it  is  seen  that  halves,  fourths,  sixths,  eighths,  tenths,  and 
twelfths  are  relations  ;  that  three-sixths  equal  half,  or  five-tenths, 
or  six-twelfths.  In  the  same  way  thirds,  sixths,  ninths,  and 
twelfths  are  shown  to  be  akin  to  each  other ;  so  are  fifths  and 
tenths ;  while  sevenths  and  elevenths  and  unity  have  colours  to 
themselves.  The  chart  is  30  x  21^  inches,  is  well  mounted  and 
varnished,  and  is  distinct  enough  to  be  seen  across  a  large 
schoolroom.     The  following  is  a  reduced  copy  of  it ; — ■ 


ARITHMETIC.  I33 

I  I  Colour  almost  black. 


I  All  red. 
'I  AUyellov 


I  Obtained  by  dividing 
J  J  into  halves,  /.  col- 


oured the  same — red. 

\  All  blue. 

Obtained  by  divid- 
ing each  third  into 
-j  halves,  .-.  coloured 
I  the  same  as  ^  on  the 
right  and  ^  on  the 
left,  i.e.,  red  on  left 
and  yellow  on  right. 


f        I        I        I        I        I        f        I        f        I        7M  All  green. 


ilililillililil       il  Obtained    by   divid- 
-«      J ? ! ? ! 5 — y — I 1 8_J 1 ! l_l  ing  1  into  halves,    • 


coloured  the  same — 
red. 

TTT"i      I      i      I      i    1      i      I      i      I      i      I      i           I    P^^lTnfn  tJiirnr^' 
ing  J  mto  thirds,  .*. 

coloured  the  same  as 

J — yellow. 


tV    I    tV    I    tV    I    tV    I    tV   II  tV    I    tV    I    tV    I    tV    I    tV    I  Obtained  by  dividing 
each  i  mto  halves,  .•. 

coloured  same  as  5- 
on  the  right  (blue), 
and  ion  the  left  (red). 


I  XT  I  T r  I  TT  I  A        I  A  separate  coloi 


T^  I  tV  I  tV  I  iV  I  tV  I  tVIItV  I A I  tV  I  i^T  I A I A I  ^^I'^^tA '^i ^ 


mto 
halves,  .-.  coloured 
the  same  as  ^  on  the 
right  (yellow),  and  J 
on  the  left  (red). 

Cowhain''s  Fractions  at  a  Glance. — This  is  a  chart  or  dia- 
gram designed  to  make  the  rules  of  fractions  both  intelligible  and 
interesting  in  a  simple  and  effective  manner.  Special  features  are 
claimed  for  it,  which  are  thus  enumerated : — 

1.  A  clear  notion  of  the  meaning  of  a  "  fraction  "  is  given. 

2.  By  moving  the  T  square  along  the  chart  all  the  rules  of  fractions  can  be 

explained. 

3.  Much  valuable  knowledge  is  obtained  by  simple  inspection  of  the  chart 

by  the  scholars. 


134 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


4.  Full  directions  for  use  are  printed  on  each  chart. 

5.  The  reasons  for  the  rules  of  fractions  may  be  illustrated  and  understood. 

The  chart  can  be  used  for  teaching  the  meaning  of  numerator  and 
denominator,  the  comparison  of  fractions,  the  measuring  of  the  common 
denominator  of  any  series  of  fractions,  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 


B 

A 

3SS:SSSS5! 

SSRSSSRSS 

;5;_^ 

6=fa 

■7;}, 

J 

Am 

1     1   1   11 

II 

nil 

lliliililllllllllll 

lllllllll 

lilllll 

1 

H^ 

lljllllll 

11    2 

3 
8 

4r 

8 

5 
8 

6 
8 

^■7 

i-i 

11      2 

el         e 

3 
6 

4 
6 

1    i-' 

II       f 

3 

4 

■    <-' 

II 

Z 
3 

1    '-' 

II 

1    1- 

c 

1 

1 

1 

V^^^^^^H  ° 

tion,  division,  the  difference  between  a  vulgar  and  a  decimal  fraction, 
and  the  reduction  of  a  vulgar  to  a  decimal  fraction.  As  a  specimen  of 
the  wav  to  use  the  chart  an  example  in  multiplication  is  chosen,  viz.. 

The  edge  of  the  T  square  lies  against  f .  By  looking  along  the  fourth  slip 
you  cannot  see  what  the  half  of  |  is,  but  f  is  seen  to  coincide  with  f , 
and  the  ^  of  f  may  be  read  off  (|). 


CAITCEIiLING. 

In  teaching  cancelling  commence  with  the  recapitulation  of 
the  following  rule :  //  we  multiply  the  numerator  and  denominator 
of  a  simple  fraction  by  the  same  number  the  value  of  the  fraction  is 
unaltered,  e.g. — 

n    _    n     s'     2    _    12    .    orrai"n    112    —    112X9    _    10  08 

7  —  r  ^  2  —  14  J  again  ij.,75^  —  ^i^-fxT*  —  ^^^7- 
The    converse    of  this    rule    is    also    true.       //  we   divide    the 
numerator  and  denominator  of  a  fraction  by  the  same  quantity,  suppos- 
ing both  to  be  divisible  by  that  quantity,  the  value  of  the  fraction  is 
unaltered,  e.g. — 

fl  =  H$l  =  h  i-^-^  7  is  equal  to  H- 


ARITHMETIC. 


135 


Illustrate  by  diagram.  ^ 

ABCD  --=  /vof  AEFB, 
=  T^of  AEFB, 
=  1    ofAEFB, 

.       6      _      2      _    1    •    ;  ^        2X3X1     _    2X1     _    1 
•  •  TTiT   —   TIT   —  "o  '  *-*^-'  ^X^XoT   —  "fXTT   "~    o"* 

Cancelling  out  the  2's  and  3's  in  the  first  Q 
fraction,  and  the  2's  in  the  second   we  have 

PRACTICE. 

I.  Name. — Make  the  class  understand 
the  reason  for  the  name.  It  is  so  called 
because  it  is  the  practice  of  people  in 
business  to  make  their  calculations  by  this 
way  rather  than  by  multiplication. 

n.  Method  of  Work.— The  calcula- 
tions are  done  by  the  addition  of  aliquot 
parts  {i.e.^  fractional  parts).  The  value  of 
a  unit  of  one  denomination  is  always 
given. 

The  teacher  must  explain  aliquot  (how 
many),  and  drill  well  in  aliquot  parts  before     ^  ^ 

any  attempt  is  made  to  deal  with  examples.  At  first  it  will  be 
best  to  confine  the  attention  to  the  aliquot  parts  of  the  money 
tables^  because  the  children  will  be  more  familiar  with  them. 

m.  Kinds. — There  are  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

1.  Simple. — The  given  number  is  expressed  in  the  same  denomination  as  the 
unit  whose  value  is  given  ;  e.g.,  220  articles  at  15J.  b^d.  each  article.  The  unit 
whose  value  is  given  is  one  article,  and  the  number  is  expressed  in  articles  (220). 
The  class  should  name  what  the  unit  is,  and  then  decompose  the  15J.  6^d.  into 
10s.  +  y.  +  6d.  +  ^d.     Then  the 

Cost  of  220  articles  at  105.  each  =  ^  the  cost  at  £1  each  =  ;^iio    o    o 
„  5s.     ,,      =  I  „  I05.    ,,    =        55     o     o 

„  td.    „      =iV  „  5s.    „    =  5  10     o 

,,  ^d.    ,,      =y'2  „  6rf.    ,,    =  092 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14- 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

15s.  b^d. 


£^70  19     2 


The  class  should  notice  that  aliquot  or  fractional  parts  were  found  for  los. , 
5^.,  6d.,  and  ^d.,  and  that  these  results  were  added  together.  The  work  might 
then  be  set  out  in  the  ordinary  form  and  compared  step  by  step  with  the 
explanatory  work  just  done. 

I  £220    00  =  cost  at  £1  each. 


I  OS. 

= 

•J 

of 

£^ 

= 

no 

0 

0  = 

lOS. 

55. 

= 

^ 

of 

10s. 

= 

55 

0 

0  = 

,, 

55. 

td. 

z= 

tV 

of 

Ss. 

=z 

5 

10 

0  = 

,, 

6d. 

\d. 

tV 

of 

6d. 

0 

9 

2  = 

i5J 

hcL 

£170 

i9^ 

2 

^d. 

136 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


The  work  should  next  be  compared  with  multiphcation,  and  shown  to  be 
shorter  as  a  rule.  Several  examples  should  be  worked  on  the  B.B.  by  both 
methods  so  as  to  reveal  the  fact  to  the  class  ;  e.^. ,  work  the  following  example 
on  the  B.  B.  by  both  methods,  and  the  truth  will  be  at  once  apparent :  456 
articles  at  £2  10s.  each. 

2.  Compound. — Here  we  find  the  value  of  a  compound  quantity  when  the 
value  of  a  unit  of  one  denomination  is  given  ;  e.g.,  rent  of  15  ac.  3  ro.  36  po.  at 
/^g  ^.  6d.  per  acre. 


the  aliquot  parts  will  be 

either  2  rds.  =  ^  ac. 

or  2  rds. 

=  ^  of  an  ac. 

I  rd.  =  A  of  2  rds. 

ird. 

=  ^  of  2  rds. 

20  pis.  =  ^  of  a  rd. 

20  pis. 

=  i  of  a  rd. 

10  pis.  =  J  of  20  pis. 

8  pis. 

=  i  of  a  rd. 

5  pis.  =  ^  of  10  pis. 

8  pis. 

=  i  of  a  rd. 

I  pi.  =  i  of  5  pis. 

From  a  study  of  these  lead  the  class  to  notice  that  aliquot  parts  can  often 
be  taken  in  more  ways  than  one.  With  experience  the  pupils  learn  to  select 
the  most  suitable. 

When  the  unit  whose  value  is  given  is  not  that  of  the  highest  denomination, 
it  is  best  to  alter  either  the  price  or  the  form  of  the  quantity  that  it  may  be  so  ; 
e.g.,  2  tons  4  cwts.  3  qrs.  25  lbs.  @  23.?.  per  cwt.  This  can  be  done  in 
several  ways  : — 

(a)  By  reducing  the  denomination  of  the  area,  i.e.,  by  expressing  it  as  44  cwts. 
3  qrs.  25  lbs. 

(b)  By  expressing  the  price  as  £23  per  ton,  because  if  it  be  23s.  per  cwt.  it  will 

be  £23  per  ton. 

(c)  As  we  may  find  the  value  at  23s.  per  ton,  and  multiply  the  answer  by  20. 

Work  the  example  on  the  B.B.  i>y  all  th^-ee  methods  and  compare  them. 


RATIO. 


Truths  and  Examples. 


I.  Introduction. 

II.  Develop  the  Idea  of  Ratio. 

1.  By  Money. 

{a)  \d.  is  the  half  of  \d. 
(6)    15.  is  the  2V  of  i^i- 
\c)   5s.  is  \  of  £1. 
{d)  id.  is  y\  of  15. 

2.  By  Diagram. 

III.  Methods  of  Expressing  Ratio. 

1.  By  fractions,  as  |. 

2.  By  words,  as  3  is  to  g. 

3.  By  symbols,  as  3  :  9  (units), 

or  as  I  :  3  (area). 

IV.  Its  Characteristics. 

I.  It  points  out  the  relation  be- 
tween the  numerator  and  the  de- 
nominator of  a  fraction. 


Teaching. 


1.  Question  on  the  aliquot  parts  in 
practice,  and  upon  the  relation  of  the 
numerator  to  the  denominator  in  fractions. 

II.  I.  Elicit  by  questioning.     By  further 
questioning  obtain  that — 
{a)  id.  is  twice  as  much  as  ^d. 

(b)  £1  is  twenty  times  as  much  as  is. 

(c)  £1  is  four  times  as  much  as  5s. 

(d)  IS.  is  twelve  times  as  much  as  id. 

2.  Draw  2  rectangles  on  the  B.B.,  and 
let  one  be  3  times  the  area  of  the  other. 
Show  the  difference  by  measurement  before 
the  class.  Divide  the  rectangles  into  equal 
units.     Then  the  class  will  observe  that  B 


1 

2           3 

4 

5     i      6 

i 

7 

8 

9 

is  3  times  the  size  of  A ;  or  that  A  is  J  the 


ARITHMETIC. 
RATIO— continued. 


137 


Truths  and  Examples. 


2.  It  points  out  relative  sizes  or 
magnitudes. 

3.  It  only  compares  quantities  of 
the  same  kind. 

V.  Definition. 

Ratio  is  the  relation  which  one 
quantity  bears  to  another  with 
respect  to  magnitude. 

YI.  Truths  of  Ratio. 

Antecedent  _  „  _  -. 
'  Consequent  ~  ^  ~  3' 
Consequent       ^ 
^"  Antecedent  ~  ^  ~  3- 

Antecedent 
3-  ^^^^°  =  C^Tise^ent' 

Antecedent 

4.  Consequent  =  ~^^^-' 

5.  Antecedent  =  Ratio  x  Conse- 
quent. 


Teaching. 


size  of  B  ;  or  that  h"= J ;  or  A  has  3  squares 

A  _  ., 
and  B  9;  i.e.,  g  ~"  ^• 

III.  Show  the  class  these  methods  on 
the  B.B.,  and  let  them  test  their  knowledge 
by  expressing  the  ratio  in  II.,  i.  The  class 
should  notice  that  ratio  is  found  by  dividing 
and  not  subtracting. 

IV.  I.  Illustrate  by  reference  to  III.,  i. 

2.  Illustrate  by  reference  to  the  diagrams. 

3.  Deduce  by  questioning.  Ask  class  to 
compare  3  boots  and  4  houses, 

7  marbles  and  3  elephants,  etc. 
The    third    characteristic  will    then    be 
obvious  to  the  children. 

V.  The  class  should  now  be  prepared  to 
give  the  definitions  of  ratio,  which  should 
be  written  on  the  B.B.  and  learnt.  They 
should  then  be  asked  to  give  a  number  of 
ratios,  expressing  them  in  three  different 
ways.  This  will  test  the  accuracy  of  their 
knowledge,  e.g. — 

§,  or  2  is  to  3,  or  2  :  3 

^,  or  4  is  to  5,  or  4 :  5,  etc. 

VI.  Give  the  names  Antecedent  and 
Consequent,  with  their  meanings. 

Demonstrate  these  truths  on  the  B.B. 
by  the  application  of  some  of  the  ratios 
given  by  the  class. 

Lead  the  class  to  discover  that  when  any 
two  of  the  three  terms  are  given  or  known, 
the  other  can  always  be  found. 

Recapitulate. 


PROPORTION. 


Truths  and  Examples. 


I.  Introduction. 

II.  Develop  the  Idea  of  Proportion. 

5  :  10  15  :    30 

7  :  21  3:9 

8  :  40  20  :  100 

III.  Methods  of  Expression. 

5  :  10  as  15  :  30  or  ,\  -  ^ 

7  :  21  as  3  :   9  or  ./^  =  § 

8  :  40  as  20  :  loo  or  /^  =  fW 

or  5  :  10  :  :  15  :  30. 

IV.  Definition. 

Proportion  is  an  equality  of  ratios. 
Y.  Truths  of  Proportion. 
1.  Technicalities. 

The  two  end  terms  are  called  the 


Teaching. 


I.  Recapitulate  rapidly  the  chief  points 
and  truths  of  the  lesson  on  ratio. 

II.  Demonstrate  the  equality  of  ratios 
on  the  B.B. 

Therefore  the  ratio  of  6  is  equal 
to  the  ratio  of  ig  j   i.e.,  there  is 
an  equality  of  ratios.     Illustrate 
and  confirm  with  the  other  examples. 

III.  Show  this  upon  the  B.B.,  and  call 
attention  to  the  final  form. 

The  teacher  should  then  give  a  number 
of  equal  ratios,  and  the  class  should  express 
them  in  the  form  of  a  proportion.  The 
class  should  afterwards  supply  their  own 
examples. 

IV.  The  pupils  should  now  be  able  to 
give  this  definition.  If  they  fail  the  work 
must  be  repeated  with  further  explanation. 

V.  I.  First  give   the    technicalities    and 


138 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 
FROPORTION— continued. 


Truths  and  Examples. 


extremes,  and  the  two  inner  terms 
the  means  ;  e.g. : — 
Extreme  :  Mean  :  Mean  :  Extreme, 
or  5        :     lo  :  :      15     :       30. 

2.  Truths. 

product  of  means 

(a)  Either  extreme    =     other  extreme.    " 

product  of  extremes 

(6)  Either  mean   — 


3.  Illustrations. 

10  X  15 
(«)  5   =^  ^' 3"o~ 
5  X  30 


other  mean 


15 


30 


15 


10  X   15 

5 
5  X  30 


(b)  10  = 


YI.  Applications  of  its  Truths  to  the 
Rule  of  Three. 

Problem  :  Given  any  3  of  the  4 
terms  of  a  proportion,  to  find  the 
4th. 

Example. 

If  4  books  cost  245.  what  will  100 
books  cost  at  the  same  price  ? 

24  X  100 
Reqd.  cost  = =  600  sh. 

The     complete     proportion     be- 
comes— 
4  books  :  100  books  :  :  245.  :  6oos. 
Other  Examples. 

A  few  other  examples  should  be 
written  here,  some  of  which  should 
be  given  by  the  teacher,  and  some 
by  the  class. 


Teaching. 


illustrate  as  opposite  on  the  B.B.    Elicit 

by  questions  that  the  terms  are  named  from 
their  position. 

2  and  3.  These  truths  should  not  be  told, 
but  discovered  by  the  use  of  the  B.B.  First 
the  proportion  should  be  again  stated  as  in 
V.  I.  on  the  B.B.  Then  the  illustrations 
should  be  taken  seriatim,  and  the  result 
should  come  as  a  surprise  to  the  class  ;  e.g. : 

ID  (mean)  X  15  (mean) 
5  (extreme)  =   30  (extreme)  =5- 

The  other  cases  should  be  dealt  with  on 
the  B.B.  in  a  similar  way.  The  figures 
could  then  be  rubbed  out,  the  terms  left 
standing,  and  the  truths  will  stand  revealed 
to  the  class,  who  should  now  be  asked  to 
reproduce  them  with  illustrations  on  their 
slates  from  memory. 

VI.  The  class  will  be  able  to  do  this  from 
what  they  know  of  the  truths  of  proportion. 

Point  out  that  3  terms  are  given,  and  that 
it  is  required  to  find  the  4th.  Ask  the  class 
to  express  the  ratios. 

.      4  books  24s.  _ 

First  ratio  j— ^^^  =  Req.  No.  of  ShT 
second  ratio.  Or  4  books  :  100  books  :  : 
24s.  :  Req.  No.  of  S. 

Apply  V.  2,  and  we  get — 

product  of  means 

Either  extreme  =     other  extreme     ' 
then  req.  No.  of  s.  (one  extreme)  = 
100  (mean)  x  24  (mean) 
4  (other  extreme)       ' 


100  X  24 


600S. 


i.e.,  req.  No.  of  s.  = 

4  books         24.S. 

—  r — 1"  =  2 or  4.  :  100  :  :  24.  :  600. 

100  books      600s.  "*  ^  •    '-'        ^'t 


The  Unitary  Method  of  Proportion. — The  process  here  is 
much  more  simple  and  requires  no  explanation  of  ratio  or  propor- 
tion. We  seek  to  find  what  is  wanted  from  what  is  given  by 
passing  through  a  unit  common  to  both;  e.g.,  If  6  books  cost  12s., 
what  will  9  books  cost  at  the  same  price  ? 

Given  that  6  books  cost  12s., 

Then  i  book  {common  unit)  costs  y  =  2S., 

.-.  9  books  cost  9  X  2  =  18. 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  the  Two  Methods. 

1.  The  Proportion  Method. 

{a)  It  takes  up  and  expands  an  Arithmetic  principle  which  the  children  have 
already  recognised  in  Practice  and  Fractions. 


ARITHMETIC.  139 

{b)  It  offers  a  fine  exercise  for  training  the  reasoning  faculty. 

1.  By  demanding  that  they  shall  see  the  relationship  existing  between  terms 

when  differently  grouped. 

2.  By  requiring  them  to  formulate  the  truths  expressed  ;  e.g.,  the  product  of  the 

extremes  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  means. 
[c]  It  leads  to  guessing,  and  has  a  tendency  to  become  purely  mechanical,  the 
truths  embodied  in  it  either  beingforgotten,  or  never  properly  understood, 
{d)  It  requires  more  time  than  the  other  method. 
2.  The  Unitary  Method. 

(a)  Its  great  recommendation  is  its  simplicity  of  principle. 

[b)  It  dispenses  with  the  necessity  for  distinguishing  between  Simple  and 

Compound  Proportion. 
(6-)  It  is  generally  a  safer  method  than  the  other,  for  the  terms,  especially  in 

Compound  Proportion,  are  often  misstated. 
{d)  There  is   more  intelligence  accompanying  its  work,  for  its  truths  are 

easily  grasped  and  remembered ;    and  it  does  not  so  readily  become 

mechanical. 
{e)  Generally  it  is  more  expeditious. 
(/)  It  is  usually  the  method  preferred  by  examiners. 

DECIBIAIiS. 

1.  Notation  and  Numeration.— In  teaching  the  notation  of 
decimals,  comparison  should  be  made  with  the  ordinary  system  of 
notation.  So  far  as  the  whole  numbers  are  concerned,  the 
systems  will  be  seen  to  be  alike ;  the  difference  presents  itself 
with  the  introduction  of  the  decimal  fractions. 

In  the  ordinary  system  of  notation  any  figure  in  the  units  place  retains  its 
intrinsic  value,  whilst  every  figure  to  the  left  of  the  units  place  acquires  a  local 
value  ;  i.e.,  a  value  dependent  on  its  position.  This  value  becomes  ten  times 
greater  for  every  place  it  is  moved  to  the  left.  Our  ordinary  system  of  notation 
is  thus  seen  to  have  10  for  its  basis.  The  teacher's  work  now  is  to  show  that 
the  value  of  every  digit  in  a  system  of  decimal  fractions  becomes  ten  times  less 
for  every  place  it  is  moved  to  the  right.  This  should  be  illustrated  on  the 
B.  B.  by  suitable  examples,  and  the  type  of  example  lending  itself  most  readily 
to  a  lucid  explanation  is  one  composed  entirely  of  the  same  digits ;  e.g. , 
4444-4444. 

Decomposing  this  number  we  have — 

4000  +  400  +  40  +  4  •  4  +  -04  +  '004  +  '0004. 

i.e.,  4000  =  4  X  1000  '4  =  4 

•04  =  4 

•004  =  4 

•0004  =  4 

The  teacher  should  now  tell  the  class  the  respective  names  of  the  two 

portions  constituting  the  decimal  quantity.     From  this  illustration  it  will 

J  ,     y-j     .      ,        be  seen  that  the   numbers  to  the  left  of  the 

^       .  decimal     point    are     called    integral    (whole 

4444  4444  numbers),    and    the  part  to  the  right  of  the 

point  decimal  (fractions).     The  class   should   now  be  able   to   see   that 

a  decimal  fraction  is  one  whose  unexpressed  denominator  is  cither  ten  or 

some  poiver  of  ten.     Plenty  of  other  examples  should  be  given. 

2.  Decimals,  Finite  and  Infinite. 

{a)  To  Convert  a  Decimal  to  a  Vulgar  Fraction. — I^efore  dealing  with 
finite  or  infinite,  or  as  they  are  sometimes  called  terminating  and  non-terminat- 
ing decimals,  it  will  be  necessary  to  show  the  class  how  to  convert  a  decimal 
to  a  vulgar  fraction. 


4000  =  4  X 

1000 

400  =  4  X 

100 

40  =  4  X 

10 

4  =  4   X 

I 

X 

tV 

= 

A 

X 

tJt5 

= 

TffTT 

X 

TSTSo 

= 

TTHTTS- 

X 

TTTO^^F 

= 

Ttr^ffU" 

HO  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Take  69-426  as  an  example. 
69-426  =  69  +  ^V  +  T^^  +  T-^<v^ 

=  69  +  ^%\%  =  69tVA  =  -VAV-. 

After  this  and  other  examples  have  been  worked  and  explained  upon  the 
B.B. ,  the  class  might  then  be  asked  to  state  the  rule  :— 

Write  down  the  given  number,  omitting  the  decimal  point,  for  the 
numerator,  and  for  the  denominator  write  unity  {1)  followed  by  as  many 
cyphers  as  there  are  decimal  places  in  the  given  number.  If  there  be  no 
integral  portion  apply  the  rule  to  the  decimal  portion  only,  and  reduce  to 
its  lowest  terms  ;  e.g. — 

Reduce  -0685  to  a  vulgar  fraction. 

•0685   =    rU    +   tAu   +   T^Uli   =  T&ff  (T   =  wVt7- 

The  reverse  process  should  then  be  shown,  i.e.,  to  convert  a  vulgar  fraction 
to  a  decimal,  and  the  two  processes  should  be  compared. 

(d)  Terminating  and  Non-terminating  Decimals.— Work  a  series  of 
examples  on  the  B.B. ,  and  let  the  class  discover  this  for  themselves.  I'hey  will 
then  find  that  it  is  not  possible  to  express  every  vulgar  fraction  as  a  decimal. 
They  will  discover  that  a  vulgar  fraction  must  have  10  or  some  power  or  factor 
of  10  for  its  denominator  before  it  can  be  exactly  expressed  by  a  decimal. 
Take  as  examples  ^,  ^\,  f,  ^4,  |,  ^\. 
r-u  =  "4  i\  =  -272727  .   .   . 

if  -  f  -  -6  I    =  -571428571428  .   .   . 

T^  =  -3125  I   =  -88888  .   .  . 

Those  to  the  left  terminate  ;  those  to  the  right  do  not.  Now  ask  the  class 
to  examine  the  denominators  of  all  these  fractions,  by  reducing  them  to  their 
prime  factors. 

ID  —  5x2  II  is  a  prime  number 

5=5x1  7  »         n 

l6=:2X2X2X2  9   =  3x3 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  denominators  of  all  the  fractions  which  give 
terminating  decimals  contain  the  factors  2  or  5  or  both,  and  these  are  the 
factors  of  10.  The  denominators  of  the  fractions  which  give  non-terminating 
decimals  contain  neither  2  nor  5  as  factors  ;  hence  the  rule  : — 

If  the  denominator  of  the  given  vtdgar  fraction  in  its  lowest  terms  be 
a  multiple  of  the  factors  2  or  5  only,  the  fraction  can  be  expressed  as  an 
exact  or  terminating  decimal ;  otherwise  it  cannot. 

But  though  a  given  vulgar  fraction  may  not  be  exactly  expressed  as  a 
decimal,  nevertheless  we  can  express  it  to  any  degree  of  accuracy  we  please 
short  of  absolute  accuracy.  The  accuracy  may  be  so  great  as  to  be  sufficient 
for  all  practical  purposes  ;  i.e. ,  it  may  be  practically  accurate,  although 
theoretically  inaccurate. 

Take  f  as  an  example. 
I  is  greater  than  -8      but  less  than  -g  ;  error  less  than  J^. 
•88  „  -9;  „  ^V 

M  '888  „  -9;  „  -jf^. 

>»  '888  ,,  -9;  ,,  ^|~g-. 

The  error  is  thus  seen  to  grow  less  and  less,  and  by  taking  a  proper  number 
of  figures  in  the  decimal  part,  |  can  be  thus  represented  to  any  required  degree 
of  accuracy. 

To  Determine  the  Ijimit  of  the  Number  of  Repeating^ 
Figures  in  a  Non-terminating  Decimal. — Take  ^  as  an  example 
to  illustrate  this. 


ARITHMETIC.  141 

The  divisor  is  7,  and  it  will  be  observed  that  the  number  of  figures 
recurring  is  6,  which  is  the  limit,  or  greatest  number  possible  for  this 

divisor,  for  since  every  remainder  must  be 
Reduce  ^  to  a  decimal         less  than   the  divisor  the    only    possible 

7)600000  ^ remainders  are  6,  5,  4,  3,  2,  i,  and  o.     But 

•857142 the  cypher  cannot  be  a  remainder,   else 

the  decimal  would  not  recur.  There  are, 
therefore,  only  6  remainders  possible,  and,  therefore,  there  cannot  be 
more  than  6  figures  —there  may  be  less — in  the  recurring  period. 

The  teacher  should  give  other  examples  to  show  that  the  recurring 
figures  are  not  necessarily  always  one  less  in  number  than  the  divisor, 
e.g.,  f  =  -8.  Here  the  recurring  figure  is  one  only;  with  y\,  which 
=  '27,  the  recurring  figures  are  two ;  but  in  any  case  they  can  never  be 
more  than  one  less  than  the  divisor. 

To  Chang^e  a  Pure  Circulating  Decimal  into  a  Vulgar 
Fraction. — The  method  is  as  follows  :  — 

Change  701  to  a  vulgar  fraction. 

1.  701  X  1000  =  701  -701  =  701  +  -701. 

Why  multiply  by  1000  ?     Because  there  are  3  decimal  places,  and  the  object  is 
to  convert  them  into  whole  numbers  (integers).     Let  the  class  note  that 
1000  gives  3  cyphers  for  3  decimal  places, 
loooo     „     4      „        M     4        »  >>     and  so  on. 

2.  Now  take  '701  from  each  side  and  we  get 

701  X  999  =  701. 

3.  Next  divide  each  side  by  999,  and  we  then  get  701 1^^. 

4.  The  class  should  then  state  the  rule  :  — 

The  numerator  of  the  vulgar  fraction  is  the  number  formed  by  the 
digits  in  the  recurring  period  ;  the  denominator  is  the  number  formed  by 
repeating  the  digit  9  as  many  times  as  there  are  digits  in  the  circulating 
period. 

To  Convert  an  Impure  Circulator  into  a  Vulgar  Fraction. 

Convert  =  45906  into  a  vulgar  fraction. 
•45906  X  looooo  =  45906^906906,  etc. 
•45906  X  100  =  45*906906,  etc. 
'45906  X  99900    =  45861. 

•45906  =  45861. 

99900. 
There  are  four  steps.  .    . 

1.  Multiply  by  looooo  to  convert  45906  into  whole  numbers. 

2.  Multiply  "45906  by  100  to  convert  the  non-recurrers  into  whole  numbers. 

3.  Then  subtract  both  sides. 

4.  Then  divide  each  side  by  99900. 

The  pupils  should  then  be  able  to  give  the  rule  : — 

The  numerator  is  formed  by  subtracting  the  non-recurrers  from  the 
whole  quantity ;  the  denominator  is  formed  by  writing  qfor  every  figure 
that  recurs  and  a  cypher  for  every  figure  that  does  not  recur. 

The  Simple  Rules. — It  is  not  anticipated  that  the  young 
teacher  will  now  find  any  difficulty  in  explaining  intelligently  the 
simple  rules  of  decimals  to  a  class,  especially  in  the  case  of  addi- 


142  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

tion  and  subtraction.  Multiplication  should  be  handled  with 
equal  ease,  and  in  all  three  cases  the  proofs  should  be  given  by 
vulgar  fractions.  There  are  now  a  number  of  good  arithmetics  in 
the  market,  and  any  one  of  these  will  probably  give  all  the  assist- 
ance that  may  be  required  for  the  efficient  teaching  of  these 
rules,  A  little  more  difficulty  may  be  felt  in  the  case  of  division  ; 
but  even  here  the  rule,  however  stated,  always  depends  upon  the 
same  principle  as  that  of  ordinary  simple  division.  The  only 
difficulty  is  in  fixing  the  position  of  the  decimal  point  in  the 
quotient ;  but  whatever  method  of  working  is  adopted,  the  teacher 
should  make  the  class  thoroughly  grasp  the  fact  that  there  must 
always  be  as  many  decimal  places  in  the  divisor  and  quotient  together 
as  there  are  in  the  dividend  alone. 

Applications  of  Proportion. — -Many  of  the   higher  rules  of 
arithmetic  are  really  applications  of  proportion,  and  this  is  especi- 
ally true  of  interest,  percentages,  averages,  and  stocks.    A  number 
of  technical  terms  are  of  necessity  introduced  ;  but  the  principle  of 
the  work  is  more  or  less  the  same  in  all  of  them.     These  techni- 
calities must  be  carefully  introduced,  well  explained,  and  freely 
illustrated  by  commercial  examples.     No  attempts  should  be  made 
to  "draw"  or  "educe"  these  terms.     They  are  matters  for  in- 
struction,   rather  than    training.      The   solving  of  the   examples 
themselves  will  afford  plenty  of  opportunity  for  the  educative  side 
of  the  work,  and  the  teacher  will  find  his  best  results  there.    There 
is  little   difficulty  in   giving  clear  conceptions   of  such  terms  as 
interest,  discount,  amount,  principal,  rate  {i.e.,  rate  per  cent,  per 
annum,  unless  otherwise  stated),  commission,  brokerage,  etc.  ;  but 
there  is  always  more  difficulty  in   dealing  with  stocks,  and  the 
teacher  must  be  prepared  to  devote  plenty  of  time  to  this  subject. 
This  difficulty  arises  partly  from  the  magnitude,  or  breadth  rather, 
of  the  applications  of  stocks.      The  stock   may  be   government 
stock,  as  distinct  from  commercial  or  business  stock.     To  solve 
all  cases  dealing  with  government  stock,  a  full  and  proper  know- 
ledge  of  bonds,  the  national   debt,   the   public  funds,   annuities, 
loans,  consols  and   such  jargon   as    the   3   per   cents,   the  4  per 
cents,    etc.,    is    required.      Then    the    capital    of    public    com- 
panies like  our  great  banks,  chartered  companies,  railways,  gas, 
mines,    shipping,    etc.,    which    issue    stock    or   raise    their   funds 
by   the    sale    of   stock    requires    some    explanation.      These    are 
generally  offered   in  shares,  and   are  generally   bought  and  sold 
through  the  agency  of  stockbrokers,  who  require  a  commission 
which  they  call  brokerage.     The  stock  may  be  at  par,  at  a  dis- 


ARITHMETIC. 


143 


count,  or  at  a  premium,  and  so  on.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
child  has  to  practically  acquire  a  special  vocabulary  to  understand 
the  very  terms  in  which  his  arithmetic  problems  are  couched, 
before  he  can  deal  with  the  difficulties  of  the  actual  problems 
themselves.  These  names  are  often  mere  abstractions  to  the 
children  for  a  time,  and  in  the  early  stages  it  is  advisable  to  sub- 
stitute the  names  of  concrete  objects  where  possible  to  aid  them 
to  a  clear  conception  of  the  process. 

SQUARE  ROOT. 


Truths  and  Examples, 


I.  Explanation  of  Term. 

^Numbers,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9, 

I  ID. 

'\  Squares,  i,  4,  9,  16,  25,  36,  49, 
\         64,  81,  100. 

{Numbers,  i,  4,  9,  16,  25,  36,  49, 
64,  81,  100. 
Square  roots,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7, 
8,  9,  10. 

A.  Definitions  and  Truths. 

1.  The  Square  of  a  number  is  the 
product  of  the  number  multiplied 
by  itself. 

2.  The  Square  Root  of  a  given 
number  is  a  number  which,  multi- 
plied by  itself,  will  produce  the 
required  number. 

3.  The  square  of  the  square  root 
of  a  number  is  the  number  itself. 

4.  A  number  ending  with  2,  3,  7, 
or  8  cannot  be  the  square  of  any 
number. 

5.  The  square  of  any  number 
consists  of  twice  as  many  figures, 
or  twice  as  many,  less  one,  as  there 
are  in  the  given  number,  e.g. — 

20-  =  20  X  20  =  400 
8i2  =  81  X  81  =  6561 
300^  =  300  X  300  =  goooo 
gio'^  =  910  X  910  =  828100. 

B.  The  Symbol  of  Square  Root. — 

Examples:  -■ 

j^  =  2',  j9_=3; 

\/i6  =  4 ;   s/25  =  5. 


Teaching. 


I.  Place  the  integers  from  i  to  10  on  the 
B.B.  Let  the  class  multiply  each  number 
by  itself,  and  place  the  products  under  the 
given  numbers.  The  products  are  called 
isquares. 

Now  illustrate  by  diagrams.  For  this 
purpose  take  the  integers  3  and  4  and  con- 
struct  squares.      Let   the   class  count  the 


6 


H 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

J3 

14 

15 

16 

number   of  small   squares   in   each  of  the 
larger  ones.     They  will  notice  that— 

(1)  3  X  3  =  9;  4  X  4  =  16. 

(2)  AB   X  AC  =  ABDC  (the  square). 

(3)  That  9  is  the  square  of  3. 

(4)  That  3  is  the  square  root  of  9. 

Deal  in  same  way  with  the  square  EFGH. 

A.  I.  The  class  should  now  work  the  ex- 
amples given  opposite,  and  others  suggested 
by  the  teacher. 

2.  They  should  then  be  able  to  give  the 
definition  of  square  and  square  root. 

3.  They  should  have  observed  the  truth 
contained  in  the  third  statement. 

4.  They  should  next  have  their  attention 
called  to  the  unit  figure  of  each  of  the 
numbers  called  squares.  They  are  1,  4,  9, 
6,  5,  o.  The  integers  missing  are  2,  3,  7, 
and  8  ;  hence  the  truth  of  statement  4. 

5.  (a)  Call  attention  to  the  numbers  and 
squares  on  the  B.B.  The  class  discovers 
that  the  square  of  a  number  of  one  figure 
consists  of  either  one  figure  or  two  figures. 

(b)  Affix  a  cypher  to  the  integer  2 :  it  be- 
comes 20.  Let  class  square  20  x  20 ;  it  equals 
400.  Then  they  should  observe  from  this 
and  other  examples  that  if  one  cypher  (o) 
is  affixed  to  the  number,  two  (oo)  must  be 


[44 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 
SQUARE  ROOT— continued. 


Truths  and  Examples. 


3-   («)    J  (256  -  16  +  64)  or 
(b)    V256  -  16  +  64. 

II.  Worked  Examples. 

Find  the  square  root  of  529,  6241. 

III.  Reasons  for  Process. 


7529  =  23 

529  =  500  +  29 

=  400  +  120  +  9 

500  +  29  (20  +3 

400 

100  +  29  \  or 
120+9  / 

20  +  3 

120  +  9 

20  +  3 

20  +  3 

20  X  3  +  3''^ 

20'-^  +  20  X  3 

202  +  2  X  20  X  3  +  3- 

=  400  +  120  +  9 

==5( 

X)  +  29. 

3.  Proposition. 

If  from  the  square  of  a  number 
we  subtract  the  square  of  one  part  of 
it,  the  remainder  is  a  product  of  two 
factors  :  one  factor  is  twice  that  part 
increased  by  the  other  part,  and  the 
other  factor  is  the  other  part. 


Teaching. 


affixed  to  the  square  (400).  Hence  the 
square  of  a  number  of  2  figures  consists  of 
^  or  ^  figures. 

(c)  Similarly  2  cyphers  (00)  affixed  to  the 
number  gives  4  cyphers  (0000)  to  its  square. 
Let  the  class  verify  this  by  trial.  H(nce  the 
square  of  a  number  of  2,  figures  consists  of 
either  5  or  6  figures.  The  class  could  now 
deduce  the  general  truth  of  5. 

B.  I.  Tell  the  class  that  the  root  of  a 
number  is  denoted  by  the  symbol  J 
placed  before  it,  the  nature  of  the  root  being 
explained  by  the  placing  of  a  small  figure 
in  the  top  part  of  the  angle.  The  real  sign 
will  be  ^  ,  but  it  is  customary  to  omit 
the  index  figure. 

2.  Show  that  it  may  also  be  represented 
by  a  fractional  index  ;  e.g.  : — 

3.  Tell  the  class  that  compound  quanti- 
ties— 

(a)_May  be  represented  by  the  root  sign 
(  v/  )  placed  before  a  bracket  containing 
the  quantities;  or 

(b)  By  a  vinculum  covering  the  quantities. 

II.  The  system  of  pointing  and  the 
method  of  working  should  now  be  ex- 
plained on  the  B.B.  The  examples  oppo- 
site, or  similar  ones,  might  be  used  for  this 
purpose. 


III.  I.  Decompose  529  on  the  B.B.  :— 
(a)  Into  500  +  29  ;  (6)  Into  400  +  120  +  9. 
Set  the  work  out  on  the  B.B.  as  in  i, 

and  the  class  will  see  the  elements  of  which 

the  process  is  composed. 

2.  Present  the  same  truths  conversely  as 
in  2.  Decompose  23  into  (20  +  3),  and 
multiply  the  decomposed  number  by  itself. 
The  product  is  seen  to  be  equal  to  529. 

3.  Lead  the  class  to  see  that  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  square  root  depends  upon  the 
truth  contained  in  proposition  3.  Demon- 
strate as  follows  on  the  B.B.  :— 

(23)2  =  (20  +  3)  (20  +  3). 

=  (20  X  20)  +  {20  X  3)  -t- 

(3  X  20)  +  {3  X  3). 
=  2o2  -t-  2  X  20  X  3  -f  3"'*. 

=   20"^   -I-    (2    X    20   +   3)    X    3. 

.-.  (23)2  -  (20)2  =  (2  X  20  +  3)  X  3. 
i.e.,  (23)2  =  529 1 
and  (20)2  =  400/ 

Subtracting  ==  129  =  (2  x  20  +  3)  x  3. 
Examples.  Plenty  of  carefully  graded 
examples  should  now  be  given,  commencing 
with  easy  numbers  like  256.  Every  example 
will  probably  reveal  some  weakness  or  mis- 
apprehension somewhere  in  the  class,  and 
this  must  be  met  by  further  explanation. 
The  cypher  should  be  introduced  when 
cypherless  numbers  are  successfullyhandled. 


ARITHMETIC.  145 

MENTAL  ARITHMETIC. 

I.  Objects  of  Mental  Arithmetic. 

1.  To  ensure  rapidity  and  accuracy  in  arithmetic. 

2.  To  develop  dexterity  in  the  manipulation  of  quantities. 

3.  To  train  the  mind  for  the  arithmetic  of  the  next  standard. 

4.  To  recapitulate  rapidly  and  frequently  the  work  of  the 
lower  standards. 

5.  To  form  the  habit  of  mental  activity. 

H.  How  to  obtain  these  Objects. 

1.  Do  not  confine  your  questions  to  "scores"  and  "dozens," 
but  give  plenty  of  "  tots  "  embracing  practice  in  all  the  ordinary 
processes  of  arithmetic. 

2.  Let  your  examples  be  varied. 

3.  Let  them  deal  both  with  the  abstract  and  the  concrete. 

4.  Give  exercises  in  the  fractional  parts  of  money,  and  the 
commonest  weights  and  measures. 

5.  Let  the  questions  be  practical.  The  dimensions  of  the 
schoolroom,  the  playground,  and  the  desks.  The  weights  of  a  few 
familiar  objects  should  be  accurately  known  and  recorded,  and 
occasionally  referred  to  as  standards  of  measurement. 

m.  Tots. — A  footnote  to  Schedule  L  in  the  Code  requires  the 
inspector  to  demand  of  scholars  of  the  Fourth  Standard  and 
upwards  the  addition  of  columns  of  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence 
within  a  specified  time,  in  order. to  show  readiness  and  accuracy. 
"  Occasionally  a  long  column  of  figures  may  be  written  in  the 
sight  of  the  scholars,  and  they  may  be  required  to  name  in  quick 
succession  the  results  of  each  addition  as  the  inspector  or  teacher 
points  to  the  several  figures  in  any  order.  Oral  practice  should 
be  given  in  all  the  ordinary  processes  of  arithmetic,  and  it  should 
be  so  varied  as  to  furnish  as  many  different  forms  of  exercise  as 
possible."  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  a  great  deal  of  importance  is 
attached  to  practice  in  such  calculations  as  are  now  known  as 
"  tots,'"  and  for  this  purpose,  where  possible,  it  is  best  to  use  a  tot 
frame.  Where  the  teacher  has  to  write  every  "  tot,"  a  large 
amount  of  time  is  unnecessarily  expended  ;  and  so  far  as  such 
things  lie  in  the  teacher's  power,  eff'orts  should  be  made  to  avoid 
this.  Nor  should  these  exercises  be  postponed  till  the  Fourth 
Standard ;  they  should  begin  in  the  First,  and  might  find  a  place 
in  the   higher  classes  of  the  infant  school.     The  nature  of  the 

10 


146 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


"  tot"  can  be  suited  to  the  capacity  and  requirements  of  the  chil- 
dren. Tot  cards  are  published  and  may  be  used,  but  the  tot 
frame  is  undoubtedly  the  best  aid  for  this  work. 

1.  Arnold's  Revolving  Tots. —This 

piece  of  apparatus  consists  of  a  re- 
volving sheet  of  figures,  which  can 
Q  be  covered  so  far  as  is  desired  by 
a  revolving  curtain.  Both  sheet  and 
curtain  are  worked  by  screws  at  the 
top  right-hand  corner  of  the  frame. 
It  is  obvious  that  an  immense  variety 
of  examples  can  be  supplied  by  the 
proper  regulation  of  the  sheet  and 
curtain,  and  that  that  ready  practice 
desired  can  easily  be  obtained.  The 
immense  variety  of  combinations 
possible  prevents  the  tots  ever  be- 
coming "  known,"  so  that  every  fresh 
adjustment  will  always  demand  a 
fresh  calculation. 

2.  The  Oxford  Tot  Frame.— This 
tot  frame  is  also  specially  suited  to 
the  requirements  of  the  new  Code. 
It  consists  of  16  reversible  tablets, 
with  figures  on  either  side.  The 
tablets  are  reversed  very  easily  and 
very  quickly,  so  that  an  infinite  variety 
of  examples  can  be  supplied.  The 
figures  are  painted  white,  and  are 
i:^  inches  in  size,  so  that  it  is  suitable 
for  work  with  large  classes.  It  is 
specially  designed  to  rest  on  any 
easel,  and  it  contains  a  very  good 
feature  in  its  B.  B.  space  at  the  bottom 
for  the  answer. 

Provision  is  also  made  at  the  side 
for  the  keeping  of  a  pointer,  so  that 
it  is  always  ready  to  hand.  A  simpler 
frame  is  provided  for  younger  classes, 
and  a  double  frame  for  classes  work- 
ing in  two  sections.  Answers  may 
be  obtained  from  the  firm  selling 
these  for  this  frame,  but  not  for  the 
simpler  one.  The  tots  can  be 
lengthened  or  shortened  by  simply 
pointing  to  their  limit,  4,  5,  6,  or  7 
rows,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  variety 
is  obtained  by  reversing  one  or  more 
tablets. 

IV.  Some  Special  Rules  for  Mental  Arithmetic. 

1.   So  much  a  Day,  how  much  a  Year. 

(a)  Learn  following  table  :— 

id.  per  day  =  ;£"i   10  5    per  year. 

K         „       =      I     2  9| 

K         „       =     o  15  2i 

id.         „       =     o     7  7i 


ARITHMETIC. 


H7 


(d)  Multiply  the  shillings  and  pence  per  day  by  5,  add  js.  y^d.  for  every 
farthing,  and  then  for  every  penny  reckon  £1^  ;  e.g. ,  6s.  4^d.  a  day,  how  much 
a  year  ? 

£  s.    d. 

1.  Add  15s.  2^d.  for  the  ^d.  per  day  =      o  15     2^ 

2.  Multiply  65.  4^.  by  5  =1118 

3.  Add  ;i^ I ^  for  every  penny  (76^.)      =  114     o     o 


£116     6  io| 

2.  To  reduce  cwts.  qrs.  lbs.  to  lbs. — Rule.  To  the  number  represented  by 
the  cwts.  and  lbs.  add  12  times  the  number  of  cwts.,  and  add  28  for  every 
quarter,  e.g.  : — 

Reduce  32  cwt.  2  qrs.  24  lbs.  to  lbs. 

(a)  Number  represented  by  cwts.  and  lbs.  =  3224 

(b)  Add  12  times  the  number  of  cwts  (12  x  32)        =    384 

(c)  Add  2  X  28  for  2  qrs.  =      56 

3664  lbs. 

3.  Interest  at  8  per  cent.,  e.g.,  £6^g  ly.  od.  at  5  per  cent. 

(a)  Call  the  pounds  shillings  and  divide  by  20  =  ;;^34     g     o 
{b)  15s.  is  f  of  ;^i  .-.  call  it  I  of  a  shilling         =       009 


£3A     9     9 

4.  Interest  at  2^  per  cent. — Proceed  as  for  5  per  cent.,  and  divide  your 
answer  by  2. 

8.  Interest  at  O^-  per  cent.,  e.g.,  ;,^96o  i6s.  8d.  at  6 J  per  cent. 

Divide  the  amount  by'  16,  because  6^  is  ^^  of  100. 

;^96o  16     8 

^ =  £60     I     o^. 

Rates  which  are  easy  factors  of  100  can  be  similarly  dealt  with. 

6.  Interest  for  an  Aliquot  Part  of  a  Year.  — This  will  include  such  quan- 
tities as  73  days,  219  days,  etc.  Note  that  the  days  are  generally  some  easy 
factor  of  365.  Proceed  as  in  5  per  cent,  or  4  per  cent.,  or  the  stated  per- 
centage, and  then  divide  by  the  required  fraction  ;  e.g.  .•— 

£Z'\&  15s.  od.  for  73  days  at  5  per  cent. 

(a)  348  shillings      -         -         -     =  £1^     8     o 

[b)  155.  =  £f  ;  call  it  |5.         -     =       009 


[c)  Add  two  together       -         -     =  ;^i7     8     9 

{d)  Divide  by  i  (^V\)       -         -     =    £399 

7.  To  And  Interest  at  any  Rate,  e.g.,  ^^345  15J.  od.  at  4  per  cent. 
Multiply  by  double  the  given  rate,  point  otf  the  last  figure  in  the  ^'s,  and  call 
them  shillings  (i.e.,  all  except  the  last  figure). 

£    s.  d. 

{«)  £345  15^-  orf.  X  8 =     2766     o     o 

(6)  Point  off  last  figure  of  2766  =  2765.  -     =  1360 

{c)  The  6  pointed  off  is  /^jS.,  which  equals  y^d. 

{d)  Adding  (b),  (c)  we  get  £13  6s.  od.  +  j^d.  =  £13  6s.  j^d. 


148  A   NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

8.  To  And  the  Mean  Proportional,  e.jsf.,  as  3  :  ;kr :  :  :tr  :  12.       J?u/e.      Mul- 
tiply extremes  and  take  the  square  root. 

3  X   12  =  36 
736  =  6 
Hence  3  :  6  :  :  6  :  12. 
Again.     Find  the  mean  proportional  of  363  and  243. 
(rt)  Factor  the  numbers  3  x  121  and  3  x  81. 

[b)  Rearrange  in  squares  121  x  81  x  g  and  multiply. 

[c)  Take  square  roots  11x9x3. 

[d)  Multiply  for  product  297. 
Hence  363  :  297  :  :  297  :  343. 

9.  Practice. 

(a)  Aliquot  Parts. 

1.  4864  articles  at  12s.  6d.  =  ;;^4864  x  f  (125.  6d.  being  g  of  ;£"i). 

^  .  ,  .  ,     ,  4864  X  10 

For  convenience  multiply  by  2  =  z =  £^3040. 

i.e.,  Add  a  cypher  and  divide  by  16. 

2.  For  25.  y^d.,  e.g.,  264  articles  at  25.  y^d. 

25.  y^d.  =  25.  6d.  +  i^d. 
25.  6d.  =  £j^  and  i^d.  —  ^s. 
Hence  ^  x  £264  =  £33     05.  od. 
And  ^  X  2645.  =  ;;^  I   135.  od. 


£34  135.  o^. 

3.  For  g'id.     Divide   the   amount  or  number  by    16,  and  call  your 
answer  shillings,  then  multiply  by  13  ;  e.g.,  562  articles  at  g-^d. 
Divide  by  16  =  562  -f  16  =  35^5.  —  355.  i^d. 
And  355.  i^d.  X  13  =  4565.  j^d.  -  ;;^22  165.  y^d. 
Reason  for  process — gf  =  \^-  =  -\Y-  =  -^y^--. 

(d)  To  Multiply  by  such  Amounts  as  give  easy  Numerators  or  Denomi- 
nators. 

Take  £33  65.  8d.  x  562  as  an  example. 
£33  65.  Sd.  =  33i  =  H^. 
'■'  £33  65.  8^.  X  562  =  ^^  x  562  =  ^A|ii^  =  ;^i8733  65.  8d. 

10.  Decimals. — To  reduce  one  amount  to  the  decimal  of  another,  e.g., 
Reduce  6^.  gd.  to  the  decimal  of  £4  13^.  gd. 

(a)  Find  the  factors  of  the  smaller  sum  65.  gd.  =  Sid.  =9x9. 
(6)   Divide   the  given  sum  by  either  of  the  factors  (9  x  g)  which  is 
contained  in  it.     (In  this  case  both  are.) 
Then  £/^  135.  gd.  -f  g  =  105.  5<f. 

9 
(c)   Then  the  fraction  becomes -7-  =  yf  j  =  '072. 

It  will  be  observed  that  a  common  factor  (9)  is  cancelled  out  of  each  quan- 
tity, and  the  remaining  factors  9  and  los.  ^d.  constitute  the  fraction  which  is 
reduced  to  a  decimal. 

11.  To  Square  Numbers. 

[a]  To  Square  a  Special  Number.  — The  numbers  are  just  below  or  just 
above  an  exact  number  of  hundreds,  like  495  or  906. 


ARITHMETIC.  149 

(495)'  =  (495  +  5)  (495  -  5)  +  5^- 

=  (500  X  490)  +  25  =  245025. 

To  those  who  know  Algebra  the  reason  for  the  rule  is  easily  understood. 

For  x^  -  y^  =  {x  +  y)  {x  -  y), 

Then  x^  ^  {x  ^-  y)  {x  -  y)  +  y"^. 
Note  that  such  a  number  is  taken  as  will  just  raise  or  reduce  the   given 
number  to  an  exact  number  of  hundreds  ;  e.^.,  5  is  added  and  subtracted  in  the 
first  case ;  whilst  6  is  subtracted  and  added  in  the  second  case. 

{fi)  Having  given  a    Number  to   And  the   Square   of  the   next  Highest 
Number. — This  may  be  otherwise  expressed  as  finding  the  square  of  a  number 
just  above  or  just  below  an  exact  number  of  tens  ;  e.g.,  41. 
Decomposing  41  =  (40  +  i), 


And  (41)2  ^ 

--  (40  + 

If 

=  {40)2  + 
=  1600  X 
=  1681 

2.40. 

80  + 

I 

I 

+ 

i' 

Reason  for  rule  {x 

+  1)2  = 

■-  X- 

+  2Ar  +   I 

And  (x 

-1)2  = 

:;r2 

-  2;ir  +  I 

{c)  To  Square  any  Number  mentally,  say  36. 

1.  Add  the  unit  figure  to  the  whole  number ;  36  -f-  6  =  42. 

2.  Multiply  the  42  by  the  tens  figure  (3) ;  42  x  3  =  126. 

3.  Add  a  cypher  to  the  right  {i.e.,  multiply  by  10) ;  1260. 

4.  Add  the  units  figure  squared  (6-)  ;   1260  +  36  =  1296. 


12.  To  And  True  Discount. 


(a)  At  5  %  divide  by  21  ; 

{b)  „    4  %          „          26; 

{c)  „    10%         „          11; 

(d)  „    2i%         „          41  ; 

{e)  „  I  %      .>     loi ; 


for  145  =  21. 

„   J-^A  =  26. 

„   W  =  II. 
„    i^i  =  lOI, 

and  so  on. 

Examples. 


1.  £350  75.  lohd.  due  in  i  year  at  5%. 

Then  £350  75.  lo^d.  -^  21  =  £16  13s.  8hd. 

2.  £^33  i4-^.  3^-  due  in  i  year  at  4%. 

Then  ;^433  14s.  3^.  ^  26  =  £16  13s.  y^d. 

If  for  a  certain  Number  of  Years. — To  find  the  fraction  multiply  the  time 
(in  years)  by  the  rate.  This  gives  the  numerator.  For  a  denominator  add  the 
numerator  to  100. 

Find  True  Discount  on  ;^4i2o  8s.  yd.  due  9  months  hence  at  4  per  cent. 
Rate  =  f  x  4  =  3. 
Then  the  fraction  is  ^^^. 
And  ;^4i2o  85.  yd.   x  yf=y  =  ;^4o  05.  irf.   x  3  =  ;;^I20  05.  3^. 

V.  Typical  Problems  for  each  Standard. 

Standard  I. 

1.  How  many  must  be  added  to  42  to  make  72  ? 

2.  A  man  is  6  feet  high.      How  many  inches  is  that  ? 

3.  A  man  spends  6s.  in  penny  stamps.     How  many  does  he  get  ? 

4.  Apples  are  6  a  penny.     How  many  for  a  shilling  ? 

5.  Of  what  number  is  36  the  half? 

^.  Thvee  24's  are  the  sapie  as  hpw  many  8's  ? 


I50  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Standard  II. 

1.  A  boy  has  lo^.     How  much  will  he  have  left  after  spending  6s.  ii^d.  ? 

2.  How  many  more  tens  are  there  in  130  than  in  100  ? 

3.  I  have  10^.  10^.,  and  give  100  boys  i  penny  each  ;  how  much  money  do 
I  keep? 

4.  How  many  halfpenny  oranges  can  be  bought  for  is.  i^d.  ? 

5.  To  50  add  8  six  times  over. 

6.  5  lbs.  of  bacon  at  wd.  a  lb. 

Standard  III. 

1.  How  many  lbs.  of  butter  at  is.  id.  per  lb.  can  be  bought  for  265.  ? 

2.  How  many  more  are  11  eights  than  7  twelves  ? 

3.  A  milkman  has  3^  galls,  of  milk.     How  many  half  pints  can  he  sell  ? 

4.  How  many  children  could  take  away  7  each  from  63  ? 

5.  The  circumference  of  a  wheel  is  12  feet.      How  many  times  will  it  go 
round  in  a  mile  ? 

6.  Eggs  are  10  a  shilling.     How  many  for  a  guinea  and  a  half? 

7.  A  man  was  born  in  1831.     How  old  is  he  now  ? 

8.  6d.  an  hour  for  8  hours  a  day.     For  6  days,  how  much  ? 

9.  A  joint  of  meat  weighs  9^  lbs.     What  did  it  cost  at  lod.  a  lb.  ? 
10.   Divisor  25  ;  quotient  8  ;  remainder  6.     What  is  the  dividend  ? 

Standard  lY. 

1.  Suppose  tea  at  2s.  8d.  a  lb.      How  many  oz.  could  be  bought  for  io.r.  ? 

2.  A  man  steps  2  feet.     In  how  many  steps  will  he  walk  a  furlong  and  back 
again  ? 

3.  A  servant  girl  gets  ^13  a  year  wages.     How  much  is  that  a  week  ? 

4.  A  man  drinks  ^  pint  of  beer  at  dinner  and  J  pint  at  supper.     How  long 
would  it  take  him  at  that  rate  to  empty  a  9-gallon  cask  ? 

5.  6  telegraph  wires  extend  5  miles  each.       What  is  the  wire  worth  at  id. 
per  yard  ? 

6.  A  wall  is  20  yds.  by  6  feet.    What  will  it  cost  to  whitewash  at  hd.  a  square 
foot? 

7.  A  ton  of  coals  costs  25^.     What  is  that  a  cwt.  ? 

8.  Potatoes  are  3  lbs.  for  2d.     How  many  lbs.  can  be  bought  for  5J'.  ? 

9.  64  +  29  —  12  -=-  9. 

Standard  Y. 

1.  How  many  quarters  are  there  in  3^  wholes? 

2.  What  part  of  a  sovereign  is  8s.  ^d.  ? 

3.  What  number  is  the  same  part  of  50  as  5  is  of  6  ? 

4.  I  buy  tea  at  2s.  a  lb.     What  would  ^  of  ^  lb.  cost  ? 

5.  Which  is  the  greater,  -|  of  7  or  |^  of  5  ? 

6.  I  buy  a  cart  for  ;^2o.     I  want  to  gain  10  per  cent.     For  what  must  I  sell  it  ? 

7.  How  many  men  in  lo  days  will  do  the  same  amount  of  work  as  5  men 
in  15  days  ? 

8.  A  man  owes  ;^i5o.     He  becomes  bankrupt,  and  can  only  pay  2s.  6d.  in 
the  £.     How  much  money  has  he  ? 

Standards  YI.  and  YII. 

1.  How  many  times  is  ^  contained  in  3J  ? 

2.  S.  I.  on  ;,^35o  for  2  years  at  5  per  cent. 

3.  Express  '05  of  |-  as  a  vulgar  fraction. 

4.  Reduce  25  threepenny  pieces  to  the  fraction  of  £2. 

5.  A  man  pays  ;^8oo  for  a  house.      The  ground  rent  is  j^y  ;  the  lease  is  80 
years.     What  does  the  house  cost  him  ? 

6.  A  man  buys  a  bicycle  for  ;i^i8,  and  gets  20  per  cent,  discount  for  cash. 
What  does  he  pay  for  it  ? 

7.  A  man  works  on  commission  at  3^  per  cent.      He  receives  ^1^3X2,     How 
much  money  does  he  collect  ? 


ARITHMETIC.  151 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Explain  fully,  as  to  a  class  of  beginners,  the  method  of  long  division,  and  work 
out  the  following  question  so  as  to  show  the  meaning  and  value  of  each  figure  in  the 
answer  :  Divide  ^23782  los.  6d.  by  17. 

2.^Describe  the  best  system  you  know  for  teaching  numeration  and  notation. 

3. — Make  four  sums — two  in  direct  and  two  in  inverse  proportion— and  show  how 
you  would  explain  to  a  class  the  working  of  one  of  them. 

4. — Write  out  four  simple  problems  in  arithmetic,  such  as  would  be  suitable  in  the 
Fourth  Standard,  for  testing  the  intelligence  with  which  the  scholars  had  learned  the 
rules. 

5. — The  new  Code  requires  an  exercise  in  rapid  addition.  Make  out  a  column  of 
figures  suited  for  this  exercise,  and  say  how  you  would  best  secure  quickness  and 
accuracy  in  performing  it. 

6. — Show  by  means  of  illustrations  how  you  would  explain  to  a  class  of  scholars  the 
reason  of  one  of  these  processes  : — 

(rt)  Finding  the  common  denominator  of  three  or  more  fractions. 
(b)  Reducing  miles  to  half  inches. 

7. — Say  how  you  would  explain  to  beginners  the  rule  for  subtraction,  and  illustrate 
your  answer  by  this  example  :  806  -  527. 

8. — Take  the  following  sum  in  long  division :  ;f  72185  13s.  2d.  —  163,  and  work  it  so 
as  to  show  fully  the  value  of  each  separate  figure  in  the  answer,  and  of  each  remainder. 

9. — In  giving  lessons  on  counting  to  very  young  children,  say  what  apparatus  you 
would  find  useful,  and  how  you  would  make  such  lessons  effective  if  you  had  no 
apparatus. 

10. — Give  as  many  forms  of  mental  exercise  as  you  can  contrive  on  the  number  24. 

II. — Explain  what  is  the  proper  use  of  a  ball  frame  or  counting  frame  in  teaching 
arithmetic.  Suppose  you  had  no  such  apparatus,  explain  how  you  might  teach  counting 
by  any  of  the  objects  in  the  schoolroom. 

12. — Notes  of  Lessons  on  multiplication  of  fractions,  reduction  of  money,  ratio,  short 
division,  multiplication  of  money,  numeration  and  notation,  long  division,  numeration, 
fractions,  first  lesson  on  practice,  simple  subtraction,  rule  of  three  by  the  method  of 
unity. 

13. — State  how  you  would  explain  to  a  scholar  in  the  Third  Standard  the  value  of 
the  full  remainder  obtained  in  the  division  of  349  by  42,  when  the  division  is  performed 
by  the  factors  6  and  7  respectively. 

14. — Distinguish  the  teaching  of  the  rule  of  three  by  the  method  of  unity  and  by 
proportion,  and  compare  their  advantages. 

15. — Write  out  a  rule  for  converting  a  pure  circulating  decimal  into  a  vulgar  frac- 
tion, and  work  an  easy  example  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  the  reason  of  the  rule. 

16. — Write  out  two  or  three  problems  in  mental  arithmetic  requiring  the  application 
of  three  at  least  of  the  compound  rules. 

17. — Make  and  explain  diagrams  to  illustrate  the  following: — 

18. — Work  at  full  length  an  example  in  compound  practice  which  will  prove  your 
process  in  this  instance  to  be  shorter  than  the  ordinary  method  of  compound  multipli- 
cation. 

ig. — In  teaching  subtraction  two  methods  are  commonly  employed,  viz.,  of  equal 
additions  and  of  decomposition.  State  and  explain  the  method  which  you  have  been 
accustomed  to  employ,  and  set  down  a  graduated  series  of  sums  leading  up  from  the 
easiest  to  the  most  difficult  process  in  subtraction. 

20. — What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "  compound  rules  "  ?     Why  are  they  so  called  ? 

21. — To  what  common  uses  may  the  avoirdupois,  liquid,  and  square  measure  tables 
be  applied  ?  Give  examples  of  such  mental  problems  as  you  would  employ  in  each  of 
these  tables  for  Fourth  Standard  children. 

22. — Write  down  the  rules  for  working  mentally  the  following  sums :  prices  of 
dozens,  of  scores,  multiplying  by  99,  and  dividing  by  60. 

23. — A  class  can  multiply  by  numbers  up  to  9.  What  intermediate  steps  of 
reasoning  and  practice  are  needed  that  they  may  be  able  to  multiply  intelligently  by 
such  a  number  as  67  ?     Give  more  difficult  examples  of  each  step. 

24. — By  what  illustrations  on  the  B.B.  would  you  prove  to  children  that—- 

25. — Name  those  tables  of  weights  and  rqeasures  that  should  be  first  taught  to 
children.    Justify  your  selection  by  the  uses  to  which  the  selected  tables  are  applied. 

26. — Suggest  some  different  methods  for  multiplying  £3  iis.  9^^/.  by  99.  Show 
which  you  consider  to  be  the  shortest  or  simplest  way.  Would  you  think  it  advisable  to 
teach  young  children  more  than  one  method  ?     Give  your  reasons. 

27.— A  class  of  infants  understand  the  notation  of  numbers  up  to  (but  not  including) 
10.  How  would  you  proceed  to  teach  them  the  notation  of  nunrjbers  betvye^n  10  ^nd 
^o  ?     Say  especially  vfha,t  illustrations  you  would  qsQ. 


152  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

28. — In  learning  the  multiplication  table,  which  products  do  children  commonly  find 
most  diificulty  in  committing  to  memory  ?  Account  for  some  of  the  most  difficult 
cases. 

29. — What  immediate  steps  are  needed  in  leading  a  class  which  can  multiply  by 
7  to  multiplication  by  yyy  ? 

30. — How  would  you  commence  teaching  arithmetic  in  an  infant  school,  and  how 
far  do  you  think  children  under  seven  may  be  expected  to  go  in  learning  arithmetic  ? 

31. — Give  some  examples  of  suitable  exercises  in  mental  arithmetic  adapted  for 
scholars  of  the  First  and  Fifth  Standards  respectively. 

32. — Of  the  two  methods  of  explaining  subtraction — (i)  equal  additions;  (2)  decom- 
position— which  do  you  prefer,  and  why  ?  Illustrate  your  answer  by  an  example  fully 
worked  out. 

33. — Make  four  sums  such  as  would  be  properly  suited  to  test  the  proficiency  of  a 
scholar  in  the  Fifth  Standard  ;  and  give  a  few  examples  also  of  the  sort  of  questions  in 
mental  arithmetic  which  such  a  scholar  should  be  able  to  answer. 

34.^ — What  objects  should  be  kept  in  view  in  the  teaching  of  mental  arithmetic  ? 
Say  how  these  objects  may  be  best  attained,  and  give  some  examples  of  good  oral 
exercises  suitable  to  the  Second  Standard. 

35. — Show  how  you  would  explain  to  a  class  of  beginners  the  reason  of  any  one  of 
the  following  processes  in  arithmetic :  (a)  ascending  reduction ;  (b)  subtraction  of  frac- 
tions ;  (c)  cancelling. 

36. — Multiply  74086  by  900,  and  explain,  as  to  a  class,  the  process  of  working,  and  the 
separate  value  of  each  line  of  figures. 

37. — State  and  explain,  as  to  a  class,  the  rule  for  the  multiplication  of  a  whole 
number  by  a  fraction. 

38. — Describe  some  varied  exercises  in  mental  arithmetic  suitable  for  scholars 
either — 

(fl)  In  an  Infant  Class ;  or 
(b)  In  the  Fourth  Standard. 

39. — What  useful  purpose  is  served  by  analysing  a  sum  in  arithmetic,  and  showing 
the  separate  value  of  each  figure  ?  Illustrate  your  answer  by  working  the  following 
question  in  long  division  :— 

537682  ^  37. 

40. — Explain,  as  to  a  class  of  scholars,  the  rule  for  cancelling  in  either  fractions  or 
proportion,  and  give  some  examples. 

41. — Name  some  of  the  most  effective  visible  and  tangible  illustrations  for  use  in 
teaching  either  (a)  Notation,  or  (6)  Practice. 

42. — Make  some  mental  exercises  on  money  suited  for  the  First  and  Second  Stan- 
dards, and  let  them  be  as  varied  in  form  as  possible. 

43. — Explain  how  you  would  make  young  children  familiar  with  the  right  use  and 
value  of  the  figures  i  to  7  as  the  notation  for  17. 

44. — What  are  the  shortest  processes  of  working  mentally  the  following  sums  : 
57  X  25  ;  3  doz.  articles  at  y^d.  each ;  85  x  99  ? 

45. — Describe  your  method  of  teaching  infants  between  six  and  seven  years  of  age  to 
carry  in  addition,  and  say  by  what  sort  of  visible  illustration  you  could  be  helped  to  make 
the  rule  intelligible  to  such  a  class. 

46. — Give  examples  of  questions  in  mental  arithmetic,  suited  to  children  of  the  Third 
Standard,  which  shall  illustrate  all  the  rules  taught  to  children  of  that  Standard,  and 
shall  prepare  them  for  the  work  of  the  Fourth. 

47. — Show  by  what  sort  of  visible  objects  and  illustrations  you  could  make  the  rule 
for  the  addition  of  fractions  intelligible  to  a  class  of  beginners. 

48. — Give  some  examples  of  exercises  in  mental  arithmetic  suitable  for  the  highest 
class  in  a  school,  and  show  by  what  means  rapidity  and  accuracy  can  be  best  secured  in 
conducting  such  exercises. 

49. — Give  some  hints  for  making  oral  exercises  in  arithmetic  interesting. 

50. — Explain  any  way  you  know  of  making  clear  to  the  eye  the  process  called 
multiplying  ^  by  1 . 

51. — Take  the  number  30  and  say  how  many  forms  of  mental  exercise  you  could 
devise  with  that  number  for  a  class  of  children  in  Standard  I.,  so  as  to  give  them  some 
early  acquaintance  with  concrete  and  fractional,  as  well  as  simple  arithmetic. 

52.— Frame  three  sets  of  arithmetical  questions  suited  for  scholars  in  the  Fourth 
Standard,  so  as  to  test  knowledge  of  the  reasons  of  rules  as  well  as  the  power  of  applying 
them. 

53. — Say  what  sort  of  pictorial  or  other  visible  illustration  you  would  use  in  teaching 
the  elements  of  arithmetic  to  very  young  children,  and  show  what  use  you  would  make 
of  such  illustration. 


^53 


CHAPTER  IX. 
READING. 

Its  Value. 

No  branch  of  school  education  is  more  valuable  than  reading, 
and  none  is  more  important.  Its  uses  and  applications  are  so 
numerous  and  far-reaching  that  its  value  becomes  self-evident. 
Nearly  every  branch  of  school  work  is  affected  by  it,  and  educa- 
tion goes  on  by  means  of  it  as  long  as  life  lasts.  It  is  a  great  aid 
to  mental  and  moral  culture  ;  it  records  and  lays  bare  the  progress 
of  the  world,  and  it  is  the  great  enemy  of  ignorance  and  supersti- 
tion, which  often  are  the  forerunners  of  sin  and  suffering.  It  adds 
immensely  to  the  pleasures  of  mankind,  and  may  be  made  a 
healthy  form  of  mental  recreation.  Books  are  largely  the  vehicles 
for  information,  and  now-a-days  without  our  newspapers  we  are 
"  out  of  the  world  ".  Bacon  says  that  where  there  is  little  reading 
there  is  need  for  much  cunning;  the  former  is  within  the  reach 
of  all  now,  the  latter  is  the  attribute  of  the  few.  The  ability  to 
read  also  prepares  us  for  our  great  field  of  literature,  with  all  its 
attendant  advantages.  The  mind,  like  the  body,  needs  exercise, 
and  some  of  the  most  suitable  and  enjoyable  forms  of  mental 
exercise  are  to  be  found  in  reading. 

<3«neral  Principles. 

The  teacher  must  remember  the  nature  and  extreme  difficulty 
of  the  work  he  is  attempting ;  and  there  are  certain  broad  prin- 
ciples or  general  rules,  the  remembrance  and  application  of 
which  will  tend  to  minimise  these  difficulties.  There  is  no  royal 
road  to  reading,  but  there  are  certain  well-formed  tracks  along 
which  the  way  is  shorter  and  the  work  easier. 

1.  Nature  of  the  Acquisition.— Reading  is  a  triple  task;  there  are  the  idea 
in  the  mind,  the  spoken  words,  and  the  symbols  representing  those  words. 
That  is,  there  are  the  idea,  the  sound,  and  the  symbol  If  the  idea  is  translated 
by  sounds  we  get  spoken  language;  if  by  written  or  printed  symbols,  we  get 
reading.      The  first  combination  is  already  formed  when  children  enter  school, 


154  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

for  they  have  within  certain  limits  learned  to  express  their  ideas  by  sounds 
(words).  The  teacher's  work  is  to  form  the  combination  between  the  words 
and  the  symbols,  i.e. ,  between  the  sounds  and  the  characters  which  represent 
them.  This  is  a  long  and  difiRcult  task,  requiring  skill,  method,  and  patience, 
which  the  teacher  must  always  be  prepared  to  give. 

2.  The  Sequence  in  Teaching.  —As  in  all  other  subjects  of  instruction  the 
sequence  in  teaching  must  be  observed.  The  teacher  must  proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,  and  from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

(a)  From  the  Known  to  the  Unknoian.     A  beginning  must  be  made  with 

words,  and  not  with  letters.  Children  already  know  many  words  as 
sounds  and  the  meanings  attached  to  them,  as  their  use  of  them  shows  ; 
but  probably  they  know  little  or  nothing  of  letters,  hence  to  begin  any 
system  of  reading  with  letters  is  to  violate  one  of  the  cardinal  prin- 
ciples of  all  teaching.  It  is  the  violation  of  this  principle  that  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  great  blots  in  the  synthetic  methods  (alphabetic  and 
phonic  methods). 

(b)  From  the  Simple  to  the  Complex.      This  is  specially  important,  but  it 

seems  in  some  measure  to  conflict  with  the  preceding  principle  as  far 
as  reading  is  concerned.  If  we  always  started  with  the  known  we 
should  have  to  begin  with  the  most  familiar  or  the  oft-recurring  words. 
But  these  are  generally  the  words  of  most  irregular  notation,  and 
therefore,  in  one  respect  at  least,  the  most  complex  to  children. 
Several  times  it  is  pointed  out  in  this  chapter  that  our  system  of 
spelling  is  most  anomalous  and  defective,  and  the  introduction  of 
these  anomalies  at  this  early  stage  would  give  a  series  of  shocks  to  the 
child,  and  destroy  its  confidence.  So  far  as  possible,  its  faith  in  law 
and  regularity  must  be  maintained  ;  but  if  reading  is  to  proceed  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown,  these  anomalous  words  must  soon  be  pre- 
sented to  the  child  with  their  attendant  difficulties.  It  is  wise  to  point 
out  this  difficulty,  but  it  is  largely  dependent  on  the  method  used,  as 
will  be  subsequently  seen.  So  long  as  the  Look-and-Say  (analytic) 
method  is  used,  it  is  absent  or  minimised  ;  and  it  only  makes  its 
appearance  to  any  appreciable  degree  with  the  introduction  of  the 
synthetic  methods  ;  and  the  lesson  to  be  learned  is  not  to  be  too 
anxious  to  introduce  the  synthetic  method  to  any  great  degree  in  the 
early  lessons  on  reading.  Even  when  it  is  introduced,  there  are  plenty 
of  short,  easy  words  of  regular  notation  which  lend  themselves  to 
synthetic  treatment. 
(<r)  The  Artistic  Eletnent.  There  is  yet  another  reason  why  reading 
should  begin  with  words  rather  than  letters.  Written  or  printed  words 
are  forms,  and  form,  which  is  a  matter  for  the  eye,  should  be  mastered 
as  a  whole.  The  parts  may  give  no  idea  of  the  whole  ;  the  whole  may 
give  ideas  of  the  parts. 

3.  Interest. — The  teacher  must  study  to  maintain  interest ;  and  to  do  this  he 
must  seek  to  create  a  love  for  the  subject.  The  subject  matter  oi  the  lessons 
must  be  suitable,  and  intrinsically  interesting.  (For  further  information  under 
this  head  the  student  is  referred  to  the  sections  on  Reading  Books  and  Fairy  Tales. ) 
The  teacher  s  manner  must  be  pleasant  and  winning,  his  methods  must  be  sound 
and  scientific,  based  upon  knowledge  of  child  life  and  child  mind.  The  lessons 
must  be  graduated,  and  a  skilful  use  should  be  made  of  those  useful  aids, 
comparison  and  conti-ast.  As  soon  as  possible  the  scholars'  assistance  in  the 
detection  and  correction  of  errors  should  be  enlisted,  and  they  should  be  made 
to  feel  that  they  are  sharing  the  work  and  responsibility  with  the  teacher.  Ex- 
planations should  be  introduced  in  a  suitable  manner,  and  at  suitable  times,  and 
there  should  be  no  interruptions  or  distractions  either  physical  or  mental.  There 
should  be  no  glare  of  light,  no  noise,  no  uncomfortable  seats  ;  nor  should  ill- 
placed  spelling  or  explanation  be  given  by  the  teacher,  nor  bad  discipline  toler- 
ated from  the  class. 

f,  AsuistanQe,— The  amount  of  assistance  rendere4  should  vary.     \v\  th^ 


READING.  155 

earlier  lessons  much  help  will  be  required,  for  in  school  work  teaching  should 
precede  learning.  The  B.  B.  can  be  freely  used,  words  can  be  classified  and 
syllabified,  plenty  of  pattern  work  can  be  given  for  imitation,  and  writing  can 
bo  made  to  assist.  But  as  the  scholars  become  older  more  work  should  then 
be  thrown  upon  them.  Help  will  still  be  required,  but  it  will  be  for  other  aspects 
ot  the  subject,  so  as  to  produce  expressive  reading. 

5.  Correction. — When  giving  the  class  practice  in  reading  the  teacher  should 
listen  with  closed  book.  He  will  thus  be  in  a  better  position  to  correct  all  kinds 
of  errors,  whether  of  word  saying,  of  articulation,  enunciation,  or  expression. 
Good  reading  places  the  listener  in  as  good  a  position  as  the  reader,  and  unless 
the  teacher  feels  himself  to  be  in  that  position,  he  knows  that  there  is  something 
needing  correction.  These  corrections  should  always  be  made  in  a  nice  way,  or 
there  may  be  set  up  an  unpleasant  association  which  will  handicap  all  sub- 
sequent efforts  in  these  lessons. 

6.  Amount. — The  amount  attempted  must  always  depend  upon  such  factors 
as  the  following  : — 

{a)  The  nature  and  extent  of  local  p?-ovincialis}ns. 

(d)  The  intelligence  of  the  children,  and  the  extent  of  the  curriculum. 
These  should  be  interdependent.  In  a  "  slum  "  school  or  in  a  village 
school  the  same  amount  can  hardly  be  expected  as  in  the  more  favoured 
districts. 
{c)  The  length  of  time  the  children  stay  at  school,  and  the  degree  of  regu- 
larity attained. 
[d)  The  amount  and  quality  of  the  staff. 

There  will  always  be  favoured  children,  with  special  aptitude  for  reading. 
This  fact  is  within  the  experience  of  every  teacher.  But  the  gifted  must  not  be 
chosen  as  a  standard  for  the  others.  The  average  ability  and  the  average  oppor- 
tunities of  the  class  should  be  gauged,  and  the  quantity  of  the  work  should  be 
apportioned  accordingly.    A  little  well  done  is  better  than  a  dabbling  with  much. 

Age  to  Commence  the  Teaching  of  Reading. 

There  is  a  general  opinion  among  experts  that  no  instruction 
should  be  attempted  in  the  elements  of  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic  until  the  age  of  five ;  and  this  fact  receives  official 
sanction,  for  children  are  not  compelled  to  attend  school  before 
that  age.  But  this  opinion  is  not  shared  by  many  of  the  ablest 
infant  school  teachers  in  the  country.  "  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
often  found  in  practice  that  piecing  little  words  and  sentences 
together  with  a  movable  or  picture  alphabet,  imitating  the  forms 
of  letters  and  figures  with  paper  patterns  or  pencils,  and  counting 
the  objects  around  them  are  occupations  not  more  laborious,  and 
certainly  not  less  interesting,  than  many  of  the  exercises  of  the 
kindergarten.  Moreover,  it  is  found  that  by  the  judicious  admix- 
ture of  exercises  on  simple  words  and  on  numbers,  with  other 
infantine  employments,  little  children  frequently  overcome  some 
of  the  earlier  difficulties  of  reading  and  writing  almost  uncon- 
sciously, and  before  they  are  aware  that  they  are  difficulties.  .  .  . 
Having  regard  to  the  short  period  of  school  life  among  the  chil- 
dren of  the  labouring  class,  and  to  the  indispensable  importance 
of  the  three  elementary  subjects,  it  must  always  be  held  to  be  part 


156  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

of  the  office   of  the   preparatory  or  infant  class  to  provide  the 
rudiments  of  instruction  in  these  subjects." 

Infant  Reading^  and  its  Difficulties. 

I.  "Work  of  the  Infant  Stage. — This  should  be  threefold  : — 

1.  To  teach  the  letters  and  their  powers. 

2.  To  teach  the  combination  of  the  letters  into  small  or  easy 
words. 

3.  To  teach  the  combination  of  little  words  into  simple  sen- 
tences. 

II.  Difficulties. 

1.  Physical. — These  fall  easily  under  four  heads. 

{a)  Distinct  Articulation.  The  vocal  organs  of  young  children  are  some- 
times but  poorly  developed,  and  others  are  defective.  The  distinct  arti- 
culation necessary  for  pure  pronunciation  is  the  result  of  careful  culture 
and  growth.  The  imitative  faculty  must  be  freely  used.  The  shape  of 
the  mouth  and  the  position  of  the  tongue  should  be  frequently  shown, 
and  much  patience  should  be  exercised  towards  the  dull  and  stupid. 
Common  errors  should  be  met  with  systetnatic  vocal  drill,  and  exercises 
should  be  formed  by  the  teacher  for  class  practice.  These  should  take 
the  form  of  short  sentences  ;  e.g.  — 

Vocal  Difficulty.  Exercises. 

til :       The  mo/,^er  and  fa/-^er  went  wi/^  them. 
r :       He  rode  round  the  broad  road  on  a  brown  horse. 

{l>)  Voice  Modulation.  Too  often  the  reading  of  young  children  is  a  series 
of  jerky  monotones.  There  is  no  cadence  of  voice  to  indicate  the  sense 
of  the  passage.  This  can  only  be  met  by  plenty  of  pattern  work  and 
by  itnitation.  A  little  explanatory  conversation  on  the  subject  matter 
of  the  lesson  may  sometimes  add  intelligence  to  the  reading,  which 
may  show  itself  in  an  improved  vocal  delivery,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  other 
methods  will  have  to  be  relied  on. 

[c]  Weak  Attention.     The  power  of  concentration  is  very  small  in  children. 

Sustained  attention  is  physically  exhausting,  so  that  only  reasonable 
demands  should  be  made  upon  them.  Concentration  is  a  slow  growth  ; 
hence  there  should  be  sho7-t  lessons  and  suitable  changes.  Intei'est  is  a 
great  factor  in  attention,  and  the  teacher  must  seek  all  legitimate  devices 
to  arouse  and  maintain  it.  By-and-by  habit  begins  to  assert  itself, 
and  attention  follows  as  a  matter  of  custom  and  association. 

[d)  Constitutional  Difficulties.     There  may  be  a  weak  constitution,  a  timid 

nature,  bashfulness,  shyness,  all  of  which  may  result  from  physical 
causes.     Laziness  may  be  another  result. 

2.  Mental. 

[a]  Association.      There  is  a  threefold  association  to  set  up  (see  General 

Principles).  This  association  requires  time  and  some  ingenuity  to  do 
it  intelligently. 

(b)  Intelligence.     Intelligent  reading  should  be  expected  of  children.     They 

read  childish  books  dealing  with  the  common  experiences  and  incidents 
of  child  life,  and  therefore  their  reading  ought  to  indicate  understand- 
ing of  the  subject  matter.  The  words  require  grouping  or  phrasing 
according  to  the  sense  ;  i.e. ,  the  reading  should  be  notional.  It  is  a 
difficulty  which  receives  increasing  attention  as  the  difficulty  attached 
to  word-naming  (recognising  and  saying  the  words)  grows  less.  It  is 
ignored  in  the  earliest  lessons.  In  the  later  lessons  it  is  of  primary 
importance,  and  practically  monopolises  the  teacher's  attention. 


READING.  157 

(c)  Defective  Alphabet.  Most  childish  difficulties  arise  from  this  source. 
There  are  42  elementary  sounds  in  our  language,  and  only  26  letters 
to  express  them.  Furthermore,  some  of  these  letters  are  redundant, 
some  are  silent,  and  some  sounds  are  represented  in  several  ways.  A 
child  having  learned  go,  no,  and  so  is  staggered  to  find  the  0  different  in 
to  and  do.  There  is  a  breach  of  expectation,  a  shock  to  childish  confi- 
dence, which  breeds  timidity  and  distrust  of  all  future  phonetic 
attempts. 
3.  Moral. — A  child  may  be  wilfully  inattentive,  through  some  fault  of  temper 

like  obstinacy  or  sullenness  ;  or  from  laziness,  and  laziness  in  healthy  people  is 

not  far  removed  from  imperfect  morality. 

To  Teach  the  Alphabet. 

Whatever  method  of  teaching  is  adopted,  the  alphabet  will 
have  to  be  learned  sooner  or  later,  but  do  not  begin  with  it.  Begin 
with  small  words,  as  already  instructed,  and  for  the  reasons 
already  given.  If  the  teacher  wishes  to  concentrate  the  work,  he 
could  adopt  some  such  system  as  "  Livesey's  Object  and  Word 
Method".  Eight  common  objects,  or  pictures  of  them,  could  be 
shown,  the  words  printed  on  the  B.B.,  or  some  other  apparatus 
like  the  word-building  frame  could  be  used,  and  these  words  could 
be  dealt  with  until  all  the  letters  are  known.  The  words  given 
are  can,  box,  jug,  fez,  drum,  quill,  whip,  and  key,  but  the  teacher 
could  form  other  words  for  himself  if  necessary. 

I.  Apparatus  Required. — Some  or  all  of  the  following  should 
be  used  :  — 

[a]  B.  B. ,  chalk  and  duster. 

\b)  Cards  of  letters  ;  one  capital,  and  one  small. 

(t)  Kindergarten  sticks. 

{d)  Picture  letters. 

{e)  Word-building  frames  and  solid  letters. 

(/)  Slates  suitably  ruled,  and  pencils  for  drawing  the  letters. 

H.  Capital  Letters. — These  should  be  taught  first,  and  this 
may  be  done  in  several  ways. 

1.  By  Simple  Recognition. 

{a)  In  their  order.     This  is  the  worst  method. 

\b)  By  grouping  according  to  their  elements.     This  may  be  a  good  method 

for  teaching  the  writing  of  the  letters,  but  it  has  no  special  claims  for 

reading. 

2.  By  Memory  Aids. — These  will  include: — 

(a)  Picture  cards ;  e.g.,  A  is  the  archer,  etc.  This  is  the  principle  o{  asso- 
ciation. 

{b)  Kindergarten  sticks.     This  is  slow,  but  sure  and  interesting. 

[c)  Letter  box  or  word-building  frame.  The  principle  is  the  same  in  either 
case,  and  the  teaching  should  arouse  curiosity  and  maintain  interest. 

(<f)  The  B.B.  may  be  used  alone,  or  in  conjunction  with  one  or  more  of  the 
other  aids.     The  letters  should  be  printed  one  at  a  time  on  the  B.B. 


158  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

m.  Plan  of  Ijesson. 

1.  Take  a  group  of  easily  constructed  letters — I,  X,  Y,  T,  L,  H,  etc. 

2.  The  letter  I  should  be  taken  first  as  the  simplest  and  easiest.     Print  it  on 

the  B.B.     Name  it.     The  children  must  repeat  the  name  whilst  looking 
at  it. 

3.  Next  take  the  card  of  capital  letters.     Class  to  point  out  the  I. 

4.  Then  let  the  children  pick  it  out  from  the  box  of  letters. 

5.  The  same  letter  might  then  be  picked  out  from  the  picture  cards. 

6.  Now  let  all  the  children  make  an  I  with  kindergarten  stick. 

7.  Take  another  letter  (T)  and  proceed  in  same  way. 

8.  The  two  letters  can  then  be  formed  into  a  word,  IT. 

9.  The  remaining  letters  could  be  taught  in  same  way,  and  where  possible 

little  words  should  be  formed  and  learned. 
10.   Later  on  the  children  should  write  the  letters  on  their  slates — 
(a)  From  a  copy. 
(6)  From  dictation. 

IV.  Small  Letters. 

1.  Teach  those  first  which  are  most  like  the  capitals  ;  e.g. ,  c,  o,  x,  z,  y,  w,  s. 

2.  Group  those  likely  to  be  confused  and  cornpare  and  contrast  them  ;    e.g., 

b,  d ;  p,  q ;  m,  n,  u,  v. 

3.  When  the  small  letters  have  been  learned,  place  them  side  by  side  with 

the  large  ones,  and  let  the  children  compare  and  cont7-ast  them.     Then 
mix  them  and  let  the  class  name  them  picked  out  at  random. 

Classification  of  Letters. 

1.  Capitals. — In  classifying  the  capital  letters  for  the  purpose  of  teaching 
the  alphabet  the  teacher  must  remember  that  sight  is  to  be  studied  more  than 
sound,  as  reading  is  a  matter  for  the  eye.  So  far  as  possible,  the  groupings 
should  have  some  common  element,  for  in'  comparing  letters  points  of  similarity 
are  more  important  than  points  of  difference.  Hence  the  form  of  the  letters 
should  be  the  basis  of  classification  adopted. 

Class  I.  Common  element,  straight  line,  I,  L,  T,  H,  F,  E. 

, ,     2.  , ,         elements,  straight  and  oblique  lines.  A,  Y,  W,  X,  Z,  N,  M,  K,  Y. 

,,     3.         ,,         element,  ^«rw,  C,  G,  0,  Q,  D,  U,  S,  J. 

,,     4.  ,,  element,  curve  and  straight  line,  P,  B,  R. 

2.  Small  Letters. — These  do  not  lend  themselves  so  readily  to  classification 
by  form.  Nevertheless  it  is  the  proper  and  best  classification  for  the  reasons 
given  above. 

Class  I.   Common  element,  right  line,  1,  1,  t. 

,,     2.  ,,  oblique  line,  y,  w,  k,  y,  z. 

,,3.  ,,  right  line  with  hook,  m,  n,  u,  r,  h,  f,  J. 

,,4.  ,,  curve,  c,  e,  X,  o,  g,  a,  s. 

,,5.  ,,  right  line  with  curve,  b,  d,  q,  p. 

First  Iiessons  after  the  Alphabet. 

Object. — The  object  is  to  teach  the  powers  of  the  consonants  and  words  of  two 
letters.  It  is  assumed  that  the  class  knows  the  alphabet  and  the  powers  of  the 
vowels. 

Apparatus. — B.B.,  chalk  and  duster;  card  with  words  of  two  letters;  letter 
box  and  kindergarten  sticks. 

Lesson. 

1.  Print  a  vowel  (say  A)  on  the  B.B.     Class  to  name  it. 

2.  Place  some  consonants,  one  by  one,  before  it,  as  ba,  da,  fa,  la,  pa,  etc. 

Class  to  watch  the  teacher's  mouth  while  he  slowly  pronounces  each 
syllable,  afterwards  repeating  each  syllable  after  him. 


READING.  159 

3.  Now  let  the  children  take  the  same  consonants  with  another  vowel  (E). 

A  new  set  of  syllables  is  produced,  as  be,  de,  fe,  le,  pe,  etc.  The 
teacher  goes  through  the  same  steps  as  before,  the  class  carefully 
noticing  his  mouth. 

4.  Then  let  the  teacher  contrast  the  two  series,  placing  them  side  by  side, 

and  having  them  repeated  alternately ;  e.g.,  ba,  be,  da,  de,  etc.  A 
few  combinations  like  this  will  be  enough  for  one  lesson.  Do  not 
weary  the  children  so  as  to  breed  a  dislike  for  the  work. 

5.  Then  to  fix  the  syllables  let  them  form  them  with  their  kindergarten 

sticks,  and  repeat  them  when  formed.  They  should  next  form  the 
same  syllables  from  the  letter  box,  going  through  the  same  process. 

6.  As  a  final  exercise  the  syllables  might  be  repeated  first  simultaneously 

and  then  individually. 

Card  and  Primer  Stage. 

Object.  —  To  teach  ivords  of  3  or  4  letters,  or  even  more  letters  when  the 
words  are  common  ;  also  to  teach  the  powers  of  the  letters  in  combinatioti. 

Apparatus. 

1.  A  set  of  cards  containing  easy  words  of  3  or  4  letters. 

2.  A  very  easy  primer  containing  not  more  than  40  pages.     The  book  is  to 

be  printed  in  large  type ;  the  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  are  to 
be  divided,  and  the  book  should  be  well  illustrated.  A  child's  first 
acquaintance  with  a  book  must  be  a  pleasant  7netnory. 

3.  Use  the  cards  at  first ;  then  sometimes  cards  and  sometimes  books ;  then 

books  alone. 

Lesson. 

1.  The  earlier  cards  might  be  arranged  on  the  Phonic  Method.    The  teacher 

could  name  the  first  sound,  the  class  could  repeat  it  simultaneously, 
then  several  pupils  individually  ;  e.g. ,  -at,  b-at,  c-at,  h-at,  p-at,  etc. , 
the  teacher  prefixing  the  consonants. 

2.  Then  double  consonants  might  be  prefixed — sb-at,  sc-at,  sh-at,  sp-at, 

etc.     The  children  again  to  repeat  after  the  teacher. 

3.  A  few  other  cotnbinations  might  be  treated  in  the  same  way.     In  each 

case  the  teacher  must  test  by  sample. 

4.  A  card  should  then  be  taken  containing  short  sentences  embodying  the 

words  thus  taught,  and  these  words  should  be  read  by  the  class.  If 
there  are  no  suitable  cards  the  sentences  should  be  written  on  the  B.  B. 
Too  much  word  building  is  wearisome  in  one  lesson  :  it  is  reading  that 
interests  the  children. 

5.  When  all   the  words   of  a  sentence  are  known  the  sentence  may  be 

read  with  expression  by  the  teacher,  the  children  copying.  There  will 
probably  be  need  to  exaggerate  the  emphasis  for  young  children,  for 
they  rarely  reach  the  standard  set  them. 

6.  Any  difficult  wo}-ds  should  be  written  on  the  B.  B.  during  the  lesson,  and 

spelt  and  learnt  orally  within  reasonable  limits,  for  it  is  not  advisable 
to  have  too  much  interruption  in  a  reading  lesson. 

7.  A  few  lessons  of  this  kind  will  enable  the  children  to  use  the  cards  and 

primers  very  soon.  With  these  the  teacher  should  read  single  words, 
the  class  repeating  after  him  until  a  sentence  is  known.  This  should 
then  be  re-read  by  the  teacher  for  proper  expression,  the  class  imitating, 
and  several  scholars  following  individually.  Each  sentence  can  be 
mastered  in  this  way. 

8.  The  paragraphs  should  be  recapitulated  in  the  same  manner  as  sentences. 

This  will  supply  the  very  essential  element  of  connected  reading,  which 
is  a  pleasurable  acquisition  to  most  children. 

9.  Finally  the  tuhole  chapter  should  be  thus  recapitulated.     The  teacher  will 

now  be  able  to  read  the  chapter  in  sentences,  paying  great  attention  to 
enunciation  and  expression. 


i6o  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  READING. 

The  difficulty  and  importance  of  reading  as  a  subject  of  in- 
struction are  shown  by  the  methodised  attempts  that  have  been 
made  to  improve  its  teaching.  There  are  a  number  of  methods 
in  use,  and,  as  usual,  where  interest  or  necessity  has  called  forth 
many  efforts,  there  is  the  usual  conflict  of  opinion  as  to  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  the  various  systems  in  use.  Each  of  the  best 
known  systems  is  here  dealt  with  briefly.  The  salient  points  are 
noticed  and  followed  with  a  criticism  in  each  case.  The  best 
known  of  the  methods  are  the  following  : — 

1.  The  Alphabetic  Method. 

2.  The  Phonic  Method. 

3.  The  Phonetic  Method. 

4.  The  Method  of  Phonic  Analysis. 

5.  The  Look  and  Say  Method. 

6.  The  Syllabic  Method. 

7.  The  Combined  Method. 

8.  The  English  Method. 

Some  of  these  are  analytic,  some  synthetic,  whilst  some  are 
more  or  less  a  combination  of  the  two.  But  whatever  method 
may  be  used,  there  are  certain  general  principles  or  processes  of 
instruction,  which  must  more  or  less  regulate  all  methods.  There 
must  always  be  : — 

1.  Preparation  by  the  teacher. 

2.  Pattern  work  by  the  teacher. 

3.  Imitation  by  the  class. 

4.  Correction  of  errors. 

5.  Plenty  of  practice  (individual  practice  is  the  best). 

6.  Examination. 

THE  AIiPHABETIC  METHOD. 

Description. 

It  is  called  the  Alphabetic  Method  because  it  associates  the 
sound  of  a  word  with  its  sign  through  the  medium  of  the  series  of 
its  letter  names  taken  either  collectively  or  syllabically.  Printed 
words  are  placed  before  the  child,  and  its  attention  is  directed  to 
each  letter  in  succession.  The  teacher  names  it  distinctly,  and 
the  child  pronounces  it  after  him.  In  this  way  the  scholar  is 
expected  to  learn  the  alphabet  first.  The  method  may  be  briefly 
described  thus :  — 

1.  The  alphabet  is  learned  as  already  pointed  out. 

2.  The  vowels  are  then  associated  with  each  consonant  in  turn  :  e.e.  : — 


READING. 


i6i 


at,  et,  it,  ot,  ut, 

ab,  eb,  ib,  ob,  ub, 

ac,  ec,  ic,  oc,  uc,  and  so  on. 

3.  Then  a  consonant  is  affixed  ;  e.g.  :  — 

bat,  bet,  bot,  bit,  but, 
dab,  dib,  deb,  dob,  dub,  etc. 

4.  The  short  vowels  are  then  lengthened  by  the  addition  of  e  ;  e.j^. 

bete,  bite,  bote,  bute. 
It  is  a  word  building  synthetic  method. 


bate. 


Advantages. 


1.  It  is  claimed  that  it  is  a 
method  for  teaching  reading  and 
spelling  together,  and  the  reading 
through  the  spelling  :  but  this  is 
hardly  true.  The  converse  is 
the  case. 

2.  There  is  a  saving  of  labour, 
the  work  requisite  for  learning 
the  one  being  made  available 
for  learning  the  other. 

3.  It  has  the  sanction  of  long 
usage,  but  is  now  rapidly  becom- 
ing obsolete. 

4.  It  appears  to  be  the  natural 
method  to  begin  elements,  and  to 
proceed  to  combinations ;  i.e., 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

5.  The  sounds  of  the  letters 
composing  words  when  uttered 
in  quick  succession  sometimes 
suggest  the  sound  of  the  word 
itself. 


Disadvantages. 


1.  This  combination  of  teaching  reading 
and  spelling  together  is  awkward  and  un- 
natural. In  many  irregular  words  the  spell- 
ing is  a  hindrance  to  acquiring  the  word 
sound. 

2.  The  saving  of  time  is  illusory,  for  one 
subject  interferes  with  the  other  ;  and  the 
introduction  of  awkward  and  useless  spell- 
ing combinations  is  a  waste  of^  time. 

3.  Spelling  rests  on  a  habit  of  the  eye, 
and  therefore  this  method  inverts  the  proper 
relation  of  these  subjects ;  for  reading  gives 
natural  facilities  for  learning  spelling, 
whereas  by  this  method  those  facilities  are 
lost,  because  the  attention  is  distracted  from 
the  reading  to  the  speUing. 

4.  Our  alphabet  is  very  iniperfect,  hence 
any  method  of  teaching  reading  based  upon 
it  must  necessarily  be  imperfect  also. 

5.  It  encourages  indolence,  for  frequent 
repetitions  of  the  letters  of  a  word  will  at 
length  suggest  the  word  itself,  and  conse- 
quently the  learner  does  not  put  forth  the 
necessary  degree  of  attention  for  mastering 
words. 

6.  It  is  contrary  to  the  actual  method  of 
acquiring  spoken  language.  In  talking  a 
child  learns  words  first. 

7.  The  method  is  tedious,  and  very  often 
produces  a  dislike  for  reading. 

8.  It  is  wrong  in  principle.  It  applies 
synthesis  to  the  mastery  of  form  by  the  eye  ; 
whereas  form  must  first  be  learnt  as  a 
whole. 


THE  PHONIC  METHOD. 
Description. 

The  Phonic  or  Sound  Method  associates  the  sound  of  the 
word  with  the  letter  sounds  composing  it.  The  powers  of  the 
letters  or  sounds  are  associated  with  their  shapes.  The  child 
then  constructs  the  sound  of  the  word  for  himself.  The  method 
professes  to  teach  each  sound,  and  to  have  it  separately  uttered 
before  pronouncing  the  word.  In  the  first  lessons  plenty  of  drill 
in  the  phonic  alphabet  is  given.  It  is  a  synthetic  method,  and 
practically  it  has  three  stages : — 

II 


l62 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


1.  The  analysis  of  the  sound  of  a  word  into  its  component  sounds. 

2.  The  power  to  recognise  the  picture  (letter)  of  the  sound,  and  to  articulate  it. 

3.  The  application  to  new  cases. 

Taking  any  common  word  as  an  illustration,  the  process  might 
be  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Take  the  word  bat,  and  try  to  give  the  sound  of  each  letter  in  it,  thus 

bg-a-tg. 

2.  Then  pronounce  the  word  bat.      Get  the  pupils  to  notice  the  sound  of 

your  lips,  and   their   position,    whilst  saying  b  ;    then  say   be.       The 
children  notice  the  difference  at  once,  and  can  then  imitate  these  sounds. 

3.  The  reverse  pi-ocess  is  then  pursued.       The  entire  word  is  sounded,  and 

the  children  are  required  to  give  the  sounds  of  the  letters. 

4.  A  picture  (b)  of  the  sound  is  then  shown.      The  usual  devices  must  then 

be  used  for  fixing  the  picture  and  the  sound. 

5.  Lip   work  or   silent   spelling  then   follows.       The  children   watch   the 

teacher's  mouth,  and  recognise  the  letters  from  the  shape  of  the  lips. 
The  same  process  in  its  entirety  should  be  adopted  for  other  letters. 

6.  The  sound   of  two  or   more  letters  in   combination  like  a-te    is  next 

taught. 

7.  Other  letters  with  which  the  children  are  familiar  could  then  be  pre- 

fixed,  and   the  words  sounded;  e.g.,  (b)at,  (c)at,  (p)at.     This  is  an 
exercise  in  word  building  or  vocabularies. 

8.  The  last  step  should  be  the  combination  of  the  words  learned  into  easy 

narrative. 


Advantages. 


1.  If  adopted  in  its  purity  it  would  greatly 
facilitate  the  process  of  learning  to  read. 
It  is  asserted  that  it  extends  the  words  of 
regular  notation  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  whole, 
leaving  25  per  cent,  only  for  the  Look-and- 
Say  Method. 

2.  It  is  a  good  method  for  obtaining  good 
articulation,  and  accurate  and  careful  enun- 
ciation. 

3.  Theoretically  the  method  is  sound,  the 
pronunciation  of  a  whole  being  taught  by 
the  pronunciation  of  the  parts. 

4.  It  teaches  reading  and  spelling  to- 
gether. 

5.  It  enables  children  to  apply  their 
knowledge  to  fresh  cases. 

6.  Some  teachers  have  made  it  very  effec- 
tive ;  and  more  or  less  it  forms  part  of  the 
methods  used  by  most  teachers. 


Disadvantages. 


1.  A  purely  phonic  method  is  possible 
only  where  the  number  of  letters  and 
elementary  sounds  correspond.  But  in 
English  the  letters  are  only  five-eighths  of 
the  elementary  sounds. 

2.  The  same  letter  ought  always  to  repre- 
sent the  same  sound,  but  one  letter  often 
represents  two  or  more  sounds. 

3.  Some  sounds  are  represented  by  more 
than  one  letter. 

4.  Some  letters  are  silent. 

5.  "  It  is  nothing  but  a  variety  of  the 
Alphabetic  Method  with  other  names  to  the 
letters." 

6.  It  is  wrong  in  principle,  as  it  applies 
synthesis  to  the  mastery  of  form  by  the  eye. 

7.  The  system  is  too  elaborate  and  too 
complex  for  rough  usage. 

8.  It  requires  special  preparation,  and 
therefore  cannot  very  well  be  entrusted  to 
a  young  teacher. 

9.  The  attempt  to  give  the  powers  of  the 
labials,  dentals,  and  liquids,  has  a  tendency 
to  induce  stammering. 


THE  PHONETIC  IHIETHOD. 
Description. 

This  is  a  method  designed  to  meet  some  of  the  difficulties  of 
the  Phonic  Method.     The  principle  of  the  method  is  that  the  rapid 


READING.  163 

utterance  of  the  sounds  of  the  letters  of  a  word  will  give  the  sound 
of  the  word  itself.  Each  of  the  ordinary  letters  has  a  single 
sound,  and  then  the  rest  of  the  elementar}'  sounds  of  the  language 
are  provided  for  by  variations  of  the  letters  in  use.  These  varia- 
tions are  expressed  by  means  of  diacritical  signs ;  e.g.,  the  letter  a 
has  four  sounds,  which  are  thus  expressed  : — 


I.  No  mi 

2. 

irk  a  as  in  cat. 
a     „     fare. 

3. 

4- 

a  ,,  car. 
a     ,,      call. 

This  arrangement  extends  the  alphabet  to  65  symbols,  33  of 
which  are  vowels,  and  33  consonants.  The  distinction  between 
some  of  the  symbols  is  very  fine,  and  it  requires  care  to  dis- 
tinguish them.  Type  arrangements  help.  Silent  letters  are  printed 
in  italics,  as  dum6,  ^nife  ;  while  whispered  consonants  are  done 
in  light  type,  as  (s)ing,  (s)ound.  The  diphthongs  are  expressed 
by  means  of  diagraphs,  as  b-oa-t.  The  sounds  of  this  extended 
alphabet  are  given  first,  and  the  word  sound  is  then  supposed  to 
follow,  and  the  nearer  the  alphabet  comes  to  perfection  the  truer 
this  is.  After  the  lessons  have  been  given  in  the  extended  alpha- 
bet, they  are  then  repeated  in  the  ordinary  alphabet. 

Criticism. — The  advantages  of  this  method  are  much  the  same  as  those  of 
the  Phonic  Method,  but  it  only  removes  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  that 
method  to  make  room  for  others.  The  first  four  difficulties  disappear  with  the 
extended  alphabet,  but  the  others  remain,  and  are  reinforced  by  the  following 
additions : — 

1.  The  new  letters  make  it  look  like  a  strange  language. 

2.  It  destroys  the  face  history  of  words  and  their  origin. 

3.  Special  books  are  required. 

4.  There  are  two  alphabets  to  learn,  and  one  of  them  a  very  long  one,  with 

very  fine  differences.  Hence  the  work  becomes  wearying,  tends  to 
confusion,  and  proves  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  help  to  acquiring  the 
art  of  reading,  for  in  some  cases  two  forms  for  the  same  word  have  to 
be  learnt. 

5.  It  does  not  remove  the  difficulties  of  our  alphabet ;    it  only  postpones 

them, 

THE  liOOK-AND-SAY  METHOD. 
Description. 

This  is  a  method  of  reading  without  spelling.  Each  word  is 
taught  as  a  whole,  and  its  sound  is  associated  with  it  as  a  whole. 
The  learning  of  the  alphabet  is  no  part  of  the  plan,  although  it 
gets  to  be  known  by  the  children.  The  method  may  be  briefly 
illustrated  as  follows  : — 


164 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


1.  The  teacher  takes  a  reading  sheet  containing  short  sentences.     He  points 

to  a  word,  pronounces  it,  and  the  class  repeats  it  after  him.  A 
sentence  is  thus  read. 

2.  He  then  requires  the  class  to  read  the  same  sentence  simultaneously  as 

he  points  to  the  words. 

3.  Then  some  child  is  selected  to  read  it. 

4.  The  teacher  might  then  point  to  the  same  words  in  other  parts  of  the 

sheet,  and  ask  the  children  to  name  them. 

5.  The  children  next  begin  to  notice  differences  in  apparent  similarities,  e.^^., 

felt  and  left ;  saw  and  was  ;  on  and  no.  Up  to  this  point  the  child 
has  only  noticed  form  as  a  whole.  Now  the  analytic  process  begins, 
and  he  recognises  some  of  the  elements. 

6.  The  children  might  next  be  introduced  to  books.      They  should  always 

point  to  each  word  as  it  is  read.  As  they  improve  in  their  reading 
this  becomes  less  important,  and  eventually  it  may  be  dropped 
altogether. 


Advantages. 


1.  The  word  is  mastered  by  the  eye. 
Children  talk  words  when  they  enter 
school ;  now  they  learn  to  recognise  pic- 
tures of  words.  The  child  has  something 
to  start  with,  and  so  starts  with  some  ad- 
vantage. 

2.  It  enables  the  child  not  only  to  recog- 
nise the  word  in  the  sign,  but  to  acquire 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  powers  of 
letters  and  syllables,  for  it  associates 
sound,  sign,  and  idea,  in  a  natural  way. 

3.  It  is  suitable  to  the  circumstances  of 
common  schools. 

(a)  It  meets  the  best  requirements  of 
class  instruction  by  stimulating  attention 
and  self-respect.  A  child  learns  to  read 
quicker  by  this  method  than  by  any  other, 
and  it  brings  interest  because  the  child  is 
dealing  with  words  which  it  knows. 

(b)  It  requires  no  special  preparation,  &nd 
so  can  be  entrusted  to  a  young  teacher, 

(c)  It  impresses  by  frequent  repetition. 
Many  words  can  be  learned  by  no  other 
method,  and  these  are  the  most  common  in 
child  vocabularies. 

4.  "  It  gives  more  practice  in  sounding 
letters  in  combination,  hence  the  necessary 
mental  generalisations  for  acquiring  the 
powers  of  letters  and  syllables  are  more 
readily  acquired." 

5.  It  is  the  method  which  forms  the  basis 
of  the  methods  adopted  by  most  teachers. 
Few,  perhaps  none,  use  it  in  its  purity,  but 
many  approximate  to  it. 


Disadvantages. 


1.  It  is  a  Chinese  method.  This  is  an 
unjust  and  an  untrue  criticism,  for  although 
each  word  symbol  is  learned  independently, 
yet  when  the  word  is  known  as  a  whole  it 
is  analysed  into  its  elements.  In  Chinese 
no  such  analysis  is  possible.  This  objec- 
tion is  wrong  in  another  point ;  it  assumes 
that  the  method  gives  no  power  to  master 
new  words. 

2.  A  habit  of  guessing  will  be  formed  in 
the  earlier  lessons,  unless  great  care  is 
exercised. 

3.  It  may  produce  carelessness — words  of 
similar  form  are  sometimes  confounded — 
indistinct  articulation  and  bad  enunciation. 

4.  It  requires  supplementing  by  the  Phonic 
Method  and  by  transcription.  Some  assert 
that  the  power  to  apply  the  knowledge  of 
reading  to  new  words  is  not  so  rapidly  de- 
veloped as  by  the  Phonic  Method.  This 
may  be  true  for  words  of  regular  notation, 
but  it  is  hardly  true  of  the  less  regular 
words,  which,  be  it  remembered,  are 
numerous  and  common. 

5.  Unless  the  teacher  exercises  great 
watchfulness,  its  moral  effects  are  bad. 
Pupils  pretend  to  read  or  point,  and  so 
attempt  to  deceive  the  teacher. 

6.  It  may  breed  laziness.  The  idle  or  in- 
different will  seek  to  shelter  themselves 
under  the  chorus  of  class  voices. 

7.  It  may  in  some  measure  demoralise  the 
teacher  without  zeal.  The  chorus  of  sound 
is  supposed  evidence  of  work,  and  he  is 
content  to  rest  to  the  hum  of  the  voices. 
But  this  objection  can  only  apply  to  simul- 
taneous reading,  and  then  it  is  true  of  all 
methods. 

8.  Spelling  is  likely  to  suffer  if  the  method 
is  not  supplemented. 


READING.  165 

THE  SVUliABIC  METHOD. 

This  is  only  a  modified  form  of  the  Look-and-Say  Method. 
The  principle  is  practically  the  same,  for  words  are  still  learned 
as  a  whole  for  monosyllables.  The  variation  occurs  with  words 
of  more  than  one  syllable.  Briefly,  the  method  may  be  sum- 
marised as  follows  : — 

1.  Words  of  one  syllable  are  first  mastered  on  the  Look-and-Say  Method. 

2.  The  method  then  proceeds  to  words  of  more  than  one  syllable ,  the  words 

being  carefully  graduated. 

3.  These  ivords  are  then  broken  up  into  syllables,  words  of  regular  notation 

being  first  taken. 

4.  The  children  are  then  taught  each  syllable  on  the  Look-and-Say  plan. 

5.  The  complete  word  is  then  sounded. 

6.  The  syllables  are  always  classified,  the  commonest  being  taken  first. 

TUB  METHOD  OF  PHONIC  ANAIiYSIS. 
Description. 

This  method  is  based  upon  the  comparison  of  sounds,  and,  as 
its  name  implies,  is  a  combination  of  the  Phonic  and  Look-and- 
Say  Methods.  The  idea  is  to  use  the  Look-and-Say  as  a  basis, 
then  to  combine  the  two,  and,  finally,  for  all  words  of  regular 
notation,  to  use  the  Phonic  Method.  It  is  an  attempt  to  combine 
the  best  points  of  the  two  most  popular  methods. 

1.  1!:\\Q  first  lessons  are  on  the  Look-and-Say  Method  for  the  acquirement  of 

monosyllables  and  short  irregular  words  of  common  use. 

2.  Next,  words  are  analysed  where  they  conveniently  admit  of  it  ;  e.g.,  and 

=  an-d,  pad  —  p-ad,  bad  =  b-ad. 

3.  The  co7npleting  sound  (initial  or  final)  is  done  by  the  Phonic  Method ;  e.g., 

h-am,  j-am,  s-am,  r-am. 

(a)  Vocal.  The  process  is  as  follows  -.—The  word  am  ts  slowly  spoken,  and  the 
children  are  invited  to  watch  the  teacher's  mouth  at  the  time,  noting  the 
use  of  the  vocal  organs.  Then  the  class  utters  the  word.  Repetition  is 
given  until  a  child  learns  how  a  particular  sound  is  produced. 

(6)  bymbol.  The  word  is  next  written  on  the  B.B.,  and  the  initial  or  final  letter 
is  placed  apart  as  above.  The  word  is  then  slowly  pronounced  again,  first 
the  syllable,  then  the  whole  sound.  The  children  are  then  told  that  the 
separated  letter  is  the  sign  for  the  completing  sound. 

4.  When  a  number  of  words  have  been  learnt  in  this  way  they  are  compared. 

This  comparison  is  an  important  element  in  the  method,  for  the  powers 
of  the  consonants  are  taught  by  means  of  it ;  e.g. ,  (c)an,  (f)an,  (m)an, 
(p)an,  {b)an,  {t)an,  (r)an,  (d)an. 

5.  When  the  children  have  progressed  thus  far  phonic  drill  and  comparison 

are  used  for  the  acquisition  of  new  70ords. 

6.  Words   are   carefully   classified,    the   more    irregular   being    introduced 

gradually. 

7.  .Sentence  reading  follows   each   new   acquisition   and  embraces  any  of 

the  words  already  learned. 

8.  In  the  final  stages  the  Phonic  Method  is  used  only. 


1 66 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Advantages. 


1.  It  is  a  good  spelling  method.  The 
combination  of  the  Look-and-Say  and  the 
Phonic  is  a  good  one. 

2.  It  gives  a  certain  amount  of  power  to 
recognise  fresh  words  by  directing  the 
attention  to  the  structure  of  words. 

3.  It  conduces  to  good  enttnciation,  arti- 
culation, and  pronunciation  by  teaching  the 
powers  of  the  letters. 

4.  It  is  less  Chinese  than  the  Look-and- 
Say,  and  less  absurd  than  the  Phonic. 


Disadvantages. 


1.  It  is  weak  or  wrong  in  principle,  for  it 
fixes  the  attention  more  on  the  parts  than 
the  whole. 

2.  It  is  not  suited  to  the  circumstances  of 
many  schools,  for  it  would  require  very 
careful  preparation,  and  could  not  well  be 
entrusted  to  a  young  teacher. 

3.  Special  sets  of  reading  books  would  be 
required  to  suit  the  plan.  A  series  of 
progressive,  carefully  graduated  lessons 
would  be  required. 

4.  As  in  the  Phonic  Method,  the  attempt 
to  give  the  powers  of  the  letters  might 
induce  stammering  in  some  cases. 


THE  COMBINED  METHOD. 

The  Combined  Method,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  composition 
formed  by  contributions  from  all  the  other  methods.  Probably 
in  no  two  schools  is  it  alike,  for  the  constituents  are  mixed  by 
different  teachers  in  different  proportions.  But  whatever  may  be 
the  relative  proportions  of  the  contributing  methods,  it  is  by 
common  consent  the  best  method,  and  for  this  reason  we  some- 
times find  it  described  as  the  Eclectic  Method.  Anything  that  is 
good  in  the  other  methods  is  appropriated,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
incorporated  in  this.  The  Look-and-Say  forms  the  basis,  but  the 
word  building  and  spelling  of  the  Alphabetic,  the  powers  of  the  letters 
and  the  word  building  of  the  Phonic,  the  syllabic  treatment  of  words 
of  the  Syllabic,  and  the  analysis  and  comparison  of  the  Phono- 
Analytic  are  all  used.  Another  great  feature  of  the  method  is  its 
elasticity.  The  teacher  is  at  liberty  to  use  any  portion  of  any 
method  at  any  particular  moment,  when  it  may  be  applied  with 
most  advantage.  Probably  most  teachers  knowingly  or  unknow- 
ingly use  this  method.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  it 
may  present  any  number  of  combinations,  one  of  which  is  given 
as  a  sample.  But  the  "  personal  equation  "  will  always  be  an 
important  factor  in  such  a  method  as  this. 

1.  The  alphabet  may  be  taught  as  in  the  Alphabetic  Method  by  some  of  the 

many  pleasant  devices  now  in  use. 

2.  Easy  %vords  could  then  be  taught  on  the  Look-and-Say  plan. 

3.  The  powers  of  the  consonants  could   then  be  taught  as  in   the  Phono- 

Analytic  Method. 

4.  Reading  lessons  on  the  Look-and-Say  plan  could  still  go  on,  but  they 

should  be  varied  and  supplemented  by  lessons  on  word  building  as  in 
the  Phonic  Method. 

5.  Specially  difficult  words  could  be  written  on  the  B.  B. ,  analysed  as  in  the 

Syllabic  Method,  and  spelled  as  in  the  Alphabetic  Method. 


READING.  167 

6.  Simultaneous  reading  could  be  practised  on  the  Look-and- Say  plan  from 

the  pattern  work  of  the  teacher. 

7.  Plenty  of  individual  practice  should  be  given ,  and  the  necessary  correc- 

tions should  be  made  in  any  method  most  suitable. 

THE  ENGIilSH  METHOD. 
Description. 

This  is  a  method  of  teaching  reading  which  has  been  elaborated 
by  Messrs.  Sonnenschein  and  Meiklejohn.  It  is  a  word-building 
plan,  and  an  attempt  to  analyse  and  classify  the  fundamental 
combinations  of  the  language.     It  is  called  the  English  Method. 

The  plan  consists  of  four  courses. 

I.  T/ie  Nursery  Book  or  Two  Letter  Word  Sheets.  This  book  contains  17 
lessons  carefully  graded,  and  the  progressive  nature  of  the  lessons  can  be 
graphically  represented  thus  : — 


Lesson. 


Consisting  of 


a,  i. 

a,  i,  o,  go,  so. 

a,  i,  o,  go,  so,  ho,  lo,  no. 

a,  1,  o,  go,  so,  ho,  lo,  no,  ox,  on,  of,  or,  and  so  on. 


II.  The  First  or  AT  Course,  This  consists  of  short  vowels  zvith  single  con- 
sonants. It  "consists  entirely  of  A,  E,  I,  O,  U,  with  the  addition  to  them  of 
one  letter  in  each  lesson.  The  child  is  intended  to  learn  one  letter  in  each 
lesson — not  its  name,  but  its  function  or  use.  Capitals  are  introduced  in  the 
order  of  their  difficulty,  thus  I  or  S  is  easier  than  P ;  P  than  G  ;  and  so  on." 
"  The  child  should  write  or  print  on  his  slate  the  practice,  the  lesson,  and  as 
many  of  the  sentences  as  there  is  time  for  with  neatness  and  clearness." 

Plan  of  a  Iiesson  for  First  Course. 

1.  Practice. — The  book  is  divided  into  sections,  of  which  there  are  23.  Each 
section  begins  with  a  practice,  which  contains  all  the  vowel  combinations  used 
in  that  section.  The  practice  is  read  off  on  the  Look-and-Say  Method,  both 
horizontally  and  perpendicularly,  till  the  pupils  know  every  syllable.  The  first 
practice  is  given  in  illustration. 

it  ot  ut 

ot  ut  it 

at  et  ot 

ut  at  et 

et  ti  at 

2.  Lesson. — The  lesson  then  follows,  in  which  these  syllables  are  combined 
with  a  consonant  b,  hence  we  get  lists  of  words  and  syllables  such  as  bat,  bet, 
bit,  bot,  but.  Lists  are  made  as  in  xhe  practice,  and  they  are  first  read  across, 
then  down,  till  known.     The  teacher  then  points  at  words  here  and  there. 

3.  Exercise. — An  exercise  then  follows  of  short  sentences  composed  of 
words  of  two  or  three  letters,  like 

it  is  on  tlie  bat ; 
it  is  a  bit  of  tlie  bat. 
Lessons  and  exercises  then  follow  each  other  to  the  end  of  the  section, 
towards  which  the  exercises  become  more  numerous. 

i.  Second  Practice. —  This  introduces  afresh  combination.  Another  con- 
sonant is  chosen,  and  the  same  method  is  pursued. 


et 

at 

it 

ut 

ot 

it 

ut 

ot 

i68 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


III.  The  Second  or  ANT  Course.  This  course  consists  of  short  vowels  with 
double  consonants.  It  is  the  first  course,  with  the  addition  of  a  second  con- 
sonant. 

Lesson  and  exercise  now  follow  each  other,  but  the  lesson  is  divided  into  two 
parts. 

[a]  Syllables  are  given  to  practise  until  fully  known. 

\b)  These  syllables  are  combined  instantaneously  into  words  of  two  syllables. 
The  Bridge. — There  is  a  bridge  between  this  course  and  the  next.      A  series 
of  words  and  syllables  is  given,  and  the  pupil  has  to  say  which  are  words  and 
which  not  ;  e.g.  : — 

at  et  ot  ad 

lat  ret  lot  lad 

flat  pret  plot  clad  and  so  on. 

The  bridge  is  not  introduced  until  the  later  lessons. 

IV.  The  Third  Course.  This  consists  of  lo?ig  vowels.  It  is  the  first  course 
again,  ' '  but  with  the  vowels  lengthened,  and  the  learner  will  at  once  find  that 
this  comes  about  by  the  addition  of  a  final  e'\ 

Stories  then  follow  written  without  the  help  of  any  words  with  double 
vowels.     Practice,  lesson,  and  exercise  follow  each  other  as  before. 

V.  The  Fourth  Course  contains  all  the  double  vowels  in  the  language  with 
apparent  anomalies,  and  some  words  that  cannot  be  classified. 

The  whole  method  may  be  graphically  illustrated  as  follows  :  — 
A,  E,  I,  O,  U. 


With  I  Consonant,       With  2  Consonants,  Lengthened, 

or  ^ — ^  or  , — N  or 

The  First  Course.        The  Second  Course.        Third  Course, 
ist  Bridge.  2nd  Bridge. 


Doubled, 

or 

Fourth  Course. 


The  English  Language 
(as  represented  by  words  and  letters). 


Advantages. 


1.  It  is  synthetic. 

2.  It  is  well  graded.  The  lessons  are 
progressive  and  systematic.  Difficultifes 
are  carefully  bridged. 

3.  It  introduces  plenty  of  recapitulation. 

4.  It  enables  the  pupil  to  see  the  sym- 
metry  and  regularity  of  the  English  lan- 
guage as  a  whole. 

5.  It  soon  gives  the  pupils  a  feeling  of 
mastery  and  a  sensation  of  progress. 

6.  Children  trained  on  this  system  have 
always  been  thoroughly  good  spellers.  They 
spell  by  principle  and  law. 

7.  It  is  thorough  and  comprehensive.  By 
the  arithmetical  process  of  permutations 
and  combinations  every  actual  and  possible 
syllable  in  the  English  language  is  intro- 
duced, and  accepted  or  rejected  as  is  con- 
sidered right  in  each  individual  case. 


Disadvantages. 


1.  It  is  unnatural.  Children  should  learn 
to  read  as  they  learn  to  talk.  Words  are 
not  difficult  for  reading  purposes  altogether, 
either  from  the  fewness  or  from  the  number 
of  their  letters,  but  from  their  degree  of 
familiarity  or  otherwise  to  the  children. 

2.  Like  all  synthetic  methods  it  is  wrong 
in  principle.  See  Alphabetic  Method,  Dis- 
advantages, 8. 

3.  It  is  dull  and  uninteresting.  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  any  love  for  a  subject 
hanging  round  such  a  bag  of  dry  bones. 
Children  trained  under  this  system,  who 
have  developed  a  love  for  reading,  must 
have  acquired  that  feeHngfrom  the  personal 
qualities  of  the  teacher  or  themselves. 

4.  It  may  make  good  spellers,  but  this  is 
a  reading  system  and  not  a  spelling  one. 

5.  Speaking  generally,  it  is  a  well-classified 
edition  of  the  Phonic  System,  and  has 
many  of  its  disadvantages. 

6.  It  is  not  popular.  Relatively  few 
teachers  know  it,  and  fewer  practise  it, 
although  it  has  already  attained  its 
majority. 


READING.  169 

NOTES  OF  A  READING  LESSON. 

I.  Preparation. 

1.  Language. 

The  chapter  should  be  read  through  and  marked. 

1.  To  show  the  amount  read  by  each  child. 

2.  To  mark  emphasis  and  accent  where  necessary. 

3.  To  prepare  a  list  of  difficult  words  for  learning. 

4.  To  mark  words  producing  provincialisms. 

5.  With  a  young  class  to  prepare  a  list  of  words  likely  to  be  confused,  e.g.,  saw 

and  was,  or  mispronounced. 

2.  Subject  Matter. 

1.  Explanation  of  allusions  (if  any). 

2.  To  prepare  a  few  illustrations  (if  necessary). 

3.  To  be  able  to  give  a  brief  explanation  of  the  whole  chapter. 

As  a  rule  the  mechanical  difficulties  will  be  the  chief  with  a  young  class,  but 
generally  the  difficulties  will  depend  upon — 
(i)  The  attendance. 

(2)  The  ability  and  zeal  of  the  teacher. 

(3)  The  subject  matter  read. 

{4)  The  arrangement  of  the  time  table. 

n.  Sample  of  Subject  Matter. — In  writing  notes  for  a  reading 
lesson  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  take  a  portion  of  the  subject 
matter  to  show  how  you  would  deal  with  it. 

"Who  is  this  that  cometh  from  the  south,  thinly  clad  in  a.  light  transparent 
garment  ?  Her  breath  is  hot  and  sultry ;  she  seeks  the  refreshment  of  the 
cool  shade;  she  seeks  the  crystal  brook  to  bathe  her  languid  livtbs.  The 
tanned  haymakers  welcome  her  coming,  and  the  sheep  shearer  who  clips  the 
fleeces  of  his  flock  with  his  sounding  shears." 

m.  Introduction. 

1.  The  class  must  be  properly  arranged.     This  will  depend  upon  the  nature 

of  rooms  and  the  space  at  the  disposal  of  the  teacher.     Where  possible 

the  class  should  always  stand  for  reading — 
(a)  In  semicircular  drafts  for  small  classes. 
(6)  In  parallel  rows,  the  shortest  children  being  in  front,  for  larger  classes. 

In  many  of  our  large  modern  schools  the  children  have  to  take  their  reading 
lesson  in  the  desks. 

2.  Arrangements  should  be  made  for  the  proper  and  orderly  passing  of  the 

books. 

3.  The  position  of  each  child  should  be  comfortable  and  orderly. 

4.  There  should  be  a  few  minutes'  conversation  on  the  subject  matter  to 

ensure  understanding. 

5.  New  words  and   difficult  words   should  be  written   on   the   B.B. ,  and 

rapidly  learned.     There  need  be  no  explanation  at  this  stage. 

rv.  The  Lesson. — There  are  two  chief  objects  which  must  be 
kept  in  view  in  giving  the  lesson. 

1.  To  extend  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  language  by  enlarging  his  stock  of 

words,  and  making  them  plain  to  him. 

2.  To  enable  him  to  grasp  the  ideas  in  his  book,  so  as  to  get  intelligent 

reading. 

A.  Mechanical  Difficulties. 

1.  Pattern  Reading. — The  teacher  will  pattern  read  for  imitation  by  the 
class.  This  may  be  done  by  sentences,  by  several  sentences,  or  by  the  class. 
The  wants  and  abilities  of  the  classes  must  decide  how.     .'Vfter  the  primary 


I70  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

pattern  reading  of  the  teacher,  secondary  paUern  work  may  be  given  by  some  of 
the  better  scholars.  Where  the  class  possesses  some  very  good  readers,  much 
of  the  primary  pattern  work  should  be  thrown  on  them. 

2.  Imitation  by  Scholars.  — The  scholars  will  then  imitate  the  pattern  set 
them.     This  again  may  be  varied.     It  may  take  the  form  of — 

(a)  Individual  imitation. 

(b)  Sectional  imitation.     This  is  a  useful  practice,  as  it  arouses  emulation. 

(c)  Class  imitation. 

3.  Practice :  Simultaneous  and  Individual. — Plenty  of  time  should  be 
allowed  in  the  lesson  for  practice  in  reading  unpatterned  portions.  A  portion 
might  be  read  individually,  and  then  simultaneously.  The  object  should  be  to 
give  as  much  practice  as  possible. 

B.  Difficulties  of  Ijanguage. — The  amount  and  quality  of  the 
explanation  will  depend  upon  the  class.  As  a  rule,  too  much 
should  not  be  attempted,  but  no  dogmatic  directions  can  be  given. 
The  anticipated  difficulties  should  be  underlined  in  the  teacher's 
book. 

Words  and  Phrases  for  Explanation  (in  sample). 

{a)    Who  is  t-his,  etc.     Personification  of  the  S.W.  wind.     Explain  that  the 

whole  piece  is   personification   (if  necessary   explain  personification). 

Describe  the  characteristics  of  the  S.  wind  to  the  class,  and  show  the 

appropriate  nature  of  the  various  descriptions. 
(jb)  Clad  in  a  bright,  etc.     Referring  to  the  clear  sky  which  generally  accom- 
panies this  wind. 
{c)  Hot  and  sultry  breath.      A   reference   to   the   warmth  of  this    wind. 

Breath  is  wind.     The  simile  is  good,  for  a  hot  breath  would  indicate  a 

condition  of  bodily  languor. 
[d]  Crystal  b7-ook.      Show  a  crystal,  and  let  the  class  see  how  it  sparkles. 

The  brook  sparkles  in  the  sun  like  a  crystal. 
{e)  Languid  limbs.     A  reference  to  the  fatiguing  effects  of  the  S.  wind. 

C.  Difficulties  of  Style. 

1.  Punctuation.      The  teacher  must  insist   upon  the   punctuation   marks 

receiving  proper  attention  and  proper  interpretation.        Plenty  of  cor- 
rection, pattern  work,  and  explanation  will  be  required. 

2.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  this.,  hot,  sult7y,  tanned  haymakers  and 

sheep  sheai-ers.      Where  necessary  accent  must  receive  attention. 

3.  Intelligence.      Where  children  do  not  understand  what  they  are  reading, 

style  must  necessarily  be  bad.      The  eflficient  explanation  of  IV.    (b) 
will  facilitate  the  necessary  understanding. 

4.  Voice.     The  voice  should  be  nicely  pitched  with  varied  cadence.     There 

must  be  no  artificiality,  and  the  pace  must  not  be  too  fast.       Enuncia- 
tion and  articulation  must  be  pure  and  distinct. 

D.  Discipline. 

1.  Some  points  of  discipline  have  already  been  mentioned  under  the  head 

of  introduction.      These  include  the  position  of  the  scholars,  the  distri- 
bution and  collection  of  books,  the  arrangement  of  the  class. 

2.  The  teacher's  position  should  allow  every  "child  to  fall  within  his  range  of 

vision. 

3.  The  roofn  should  be  physically  comfortable.    Noise,  glare,  and  distractions 

of  every  kind  should  be  removed. 

4.  Each  child  should  have  a  book.     There  should  be  no  "  looking  over  ". 

5.  Children   should  not    always    read    in    turn.        When    inattention    is 

detected  or  suspected,  the  offender  should  immediately  be  called  upon 
to  read. 


READING. 


171 


HOVT  TO  DEAIi  "WITH  ANOMAIiOUS  DIFFICUIiTIES 
IN  REAI3ING. 

These  may  be  illustrated  by  some  such  passage  as  the  follow- 
ing extract  (1879): — 

' '  He  would  take  no  pains  to  teach  any  boy  who  could  not  at  least  write 
what  boys  of  eight  years  old  can  write  ". 


Like  Sounds  and  Unlike  Spellings. 


T.  Would. —  Wood,  hood,  good,  could ; 
compare  and  contrast,  and  note  the  silent  /.  ; 

2.  Pains. — Panes,  canes,  reigns,  deigns,  \ 
veins,  reins.    Compare  and  contrast  again.    ' 

3.  Teach.— The  ea  sound  needs  attention 
here.  Compare  it  with  reach,  preach,  tea, 
sea  ;  and  contrast  with  screech,  breech,  teeth, 
see. 

4.  Any. — Compare  with  many  and  con- 
trast  with  penny.      Call  attention  to  the  j 
sounds  of  a  and  e.  \ 

5.  Who,  What.— Teacher  to  pattern  the 
correct  sound ;  class  to  imitate  it.  Phonic 
drill  should  be  given  on  other  combinations 
like— 

which  where  while 

when  whither         whether 

whilst  whom  wheel 

white  whire  whose 

The  pronunciation  of  who  might  then  be 

compared  with  do  and  coo  ;  what  might  be 

contrasted  with  pot,  lot,  got. 

6.  Write.— Compare  with  rite,  mite, 
spite,  kite,  and  contrast  with  right,  height, 
fight,  sleight. 

7.  Eight. — Compare  with  ate,  hate,  late, 
plate,  slate,  skate,  mate,  pate,  bate,  rate, 
date,  fate. 


Like  Spellings  and  Unlike  Sounds. 


1.  Would.— Gow/rf,  boitldier),  mould. 
Here  the  syllabic  combinations  are  alike, 
but  the  sounds  are  different. 

2.  Pains. — Mountain,  captain.  Contrast 
with  pains,  and  compare  pains  with  dis- 
dain,  maintain,  agam. 


3.  Teach. — This  word  presents  no  diffi- 
culties under  this  head. 


4.  Any. — Contrast  with  litany,  Bethflnj. 


5.  Who,  What.— H^/to  might  be  com- 
pared with  whom  and  contrasted  with 
whorl.  What  will  present  no  difficulties 
under  this  head. 


6.  Write.— No  difficulty  under  this  head. 
Practically  ite  is  an  invariable  sound. 


7.  Eight.— Contrast    with    sleight    and 
height. 


In  all  these  cases  contrast  and  cojnparison  should  be  brought  into  play,  and 
the  similarities  and  differences  should  be  placed  side  by  side  on  the  B.B.  The 
words  should  be  spelled,  written  on  slates  or  paper,  learyied,  explained  where 
necessary,  and  then  dictated.  Sentences  should  then  be  given  containing  them, 
and  these  .should  be  dictated  and  read.  The  class  should  then  be  given 
sentence  composition  on  these  words. 

QUAIiirrES  OF  GOOD  RKAJ)ING. 

These  may  roughly  be  divided  into  two  classes— mechanical 
and  mental.  The  two  classes  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  but  the 
difference  is  sufficient  to  afford  a  basis  for  classification. 

I.  Mechanical. 

1.  Pronunciation.  ~  Cc*;'/-^*/  pronunciation  depends  upon  the  proper  sound- 
ing of  the  vowels,  for  there  can  Ix:  no  purity  of  utterance  unless  they  receive 
their  right  quantities  and  powers.  Many  of  our  provincialisms  are  due  to 
incorrect  pronunciation  of  vowels. 

2.  Enunciation.— The  aspirate,  the  th,  the  r,  the  final  g  are  difficulties. 
Various  other  combinations  will  suggest  themselves,  and  the  student  is  advised 
to  compose  a  list  for  himself.     As  good  pronunciation  depends  on  vowels,  so 


172  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

good  enunciation  depends  upon  the  correct  sounding  of  the  consonants.  Where 
any  pronounced  and  general  defect  exists  vocal  drill  should  be  regularly  given 
for  its  cure. 

3.  Articulation. — By  articulation  is  meant  the  proper  fitting  of  one  syllable 
on  to  another.  The  derivation  of  the  word  (Lat.,  artus,  a  joint)  reveals  its 
meaning.     It  has  a  threefold  reference  : — 

(a)  The  proper  formation  of  elementary  sounds. 

(b)  The  formation  of  these  sounds  into  distinct  syllables. 

(c)  The  formation  of  these  syllables  into  words. 

Bad  articulation  is  often  due  to  faulty  enunciation.  Children  are  slovenly,  too 
quick,  careless,  and  inattentive  at  times;  whereas  "  in  just  articulation  the  words  are 
not  hurried  over  nor  melted  together  ;  they  are  neither  abridged  nor  prolonged  ; 
they  are  not  swallowed  nor  are  they  shot  from  the  mouth;  neither  are  they 
trailed,  and  then  suffered  to  drop  unfinished  ;  but  they  are  delivered  from  the 
lips,  as  beautiful  coins  are  issued  from  the  mint,  deeply  and  accurately  impressed, 
neatly  struck  by  the  proper  organs — distinct,  sharp,  perfectly  finished  ". 

4.  Pitch. — School  children  often  read  too  loud,  and  their  voices  are  just  as 
often  pitched  too  high.  There  can  be  no  invariable  standard  for  all ;  but  the 
pitch  generally  should  be  that  which  permits  of  an  easy,  audible,  unfatiguing 
production. 

5.  Modulation  and  Tone. — By  modulation  is  meant  variation  in  the  pitch  of 
the  voice,  so  as  to  produce  what  is  sometimes  called  cadence  or  tone.  The  rising 
and  falling  inflection  gives  that  change  of  intonation  which  makes  a  voice  pleasant 
to  listen  to,  and  facilitates  attention.  The  tone  requires  to  be  pleasant  and  dis- 
tinct, but  not  boisterous  or  noisy.  Where  there  is  no  modulation,  for  the  listener 
there  is  probably  little  comfort,  and  for  the  reader  probably  less  understanding. 
These  two  qualities  of  reading  are  difficult  to  deal  with.  They  are  more  often 
gifts  than  acquirements,  and  any  drilling  in  them  often  produces  a  stilted  and 
artificial  style. 

6.  Pace. —  The  subject  matter  will  always  determine  the  pace.  The  voice 
should  give  a  fair  translation  of  the  sentiments  it  is  uttering,  or  the  emotions  it 
is  revealing.  But  it  should  never  be  fast  unless  the  reader  is  blessed  with  a  clear 
and  audible  production.  Drawling  is  the  other  extreme,  and  it  is  just  as  bad. 
Obviously  pace  is  a  varying  quantity,  and  may  have  to  change  many  times  in 
the  same  chapter. 

7.  Accent.  —  This  is  a  superior  force  of  voice  or  of  articulative  effort  tipofi 
some  particular  syllable  of  a  word  distinguishing  it  from  the  others.  Some- 
times it  means  more  than  this  when  it  signifies  a  peculiar  or  characteristic  modu- 
lation or  modification  of  the  voice,  as  when  we  say  a  person  speaks  with  a  good 
accent.  In  poetry  it  also  indicates  a  slight  stress  upon  a  tone  to  mark  its  posi- 
tion in  the  measure.  In  such  cases  the  accent  is  regular,  and  marks  the  flow 
of  the  rhythm. 

In  Gill's  School  Management  a  much  wider  function  is  claimed  for  accent. 
There  it  is  stated  that  "  accent  is  a  stress  or  bounding  of  the  voice,  followed  by 
a  slight  pause,  which  groups  in  pronunciation  those  words  that  are  so  closely 
combined  in  sense  as  to  convey  but  one  notion,  and  to  separate  which  would  be 
to  destroy  the  sense.  It  also  draws  attention  to  that  word  on  which  the  notion 
to  be  conveyed  depends.  By  means  of  accent  phrases  are  read,  not  as  a  succes- 
sion of  words,  but  as  a  series  of  notions,  which  are  in  this  way  made  distinct. 
In  fact,  accent  is  the  expedient  by  which  every  distinct  notion  is  separated  and 
distinguished  in  reading.  In  some  cases,  two  phrases  are  so  intimately  joined 
in  sense  as  to  form  but  one  compound  notion  ;  and  at  such  times  two  accents 
are  heard,  a  primary  and  a  secondary — the  primary  being  placed  on  the  word 
that  limits  the  phrase,  or  renders  it  more  specific."  If  all  this  can  be  justly 
claimed  as  the  work  of  accent,  then  it  would  have  to  be  classed  as  a  mental 
rather  than  a  mechanical  quality. 


READING.  173 


II.  Mental. 


1.  Emphasis. — By  this  is  meant  f/ie  stress  of  utterance  or  force  of  voice  given 
to  the  words  or  parts  of  statements  intended  to  be  specially  impressed  on  the 
listener.  It  often  removes  the  accent  from  its  natural  or  customary  position  to 
some  other  word  in  the  sentence.     Its  chief  effect  is  to  indicate  a  contrast,  e.g.  : — 

This  is  the  house  that  Jack  built — this  and  no  other. 
This  is  the  house  that  Jack  built — as  contrasted  with  other  buildings. 
This  is  the  house  that  Jack  built — as  contrasted  with  other  builders. 
This  is  the  house  that  Jack  built — as   contrasted  with   others   he   may 

have  bought,  etc. 

It  requires  good  analytic  power,  and  it  is  this  that  makes  it  a  mental  attri- 
bute of  reading  ;  for  a  proper  analysis  means  a  clear  understanding.  There  are 
a  variety  of  ways  of  expressing  it.  The  voice  may  be  raised  and  intensified,  or 
lowered  and  softened  ;  there  may  be  a  sudden  change  of  voice,  the  use  of  the 
pause,  or  even  gesture  may  be  utilised. 

2.  Phrasing. — This  involves  a  proper  understanding  and  translation  o^ 
punctuation,  and  something  more.  Words  have  to  be  grouped  into  notions, 
and  the  various  relations  of  these  groups  of  words  have  to  be  vocally  indicated. 
Like  emphasis,  this  makes  substantial  demands  on  the  intelligence,  and  requires 
good  analytic  power. 

3.  Fluency. — C^iviTim  mechanical  conditions  are  essential  for  fluency.  The 
type  must  be  good,  the  light  abundant  without  glare,  good  eyesight,  and  a 
comfortable  position.  The  words  have  to  be  readily  recognised  and  easily 
uttered.  There  must  be  no  physical  defects,  such  as  stammering,  or  faults  of 
habit,  such  as  slurring,  stumbling,  and  miscalling.  The  eye  has  to  run  on  in 
advance  of  the  voice,  and  the  mind  has  to  instantaneously  interpret  the  sense. 
The  words  must  come  naturally.  Fluent  reading  must  not  be  confounded  with 
rapid  reading.  Reading  may  be  rapid,  but  incorrect  and  unintelligent.  It 
may  be  a  mere  patter  or  stilted,  and  in  none  of  these  cases  is  it  fluent.  Plenty 
of  practice  will  be  required. 

4.  Intelligence. — If  the  reading  is  to  be  good  the  child  must  understand 
what  it  reads,  hence  all  the  tnethods  of  teaching  any  of  the  school  subjects  should 
be  intelligent.  Especially  in  reading  lessons  will  suitable  matter  have  to  be 
chosen,  and  suitable  explanations  given  where  necessary.  Exposition  lessons 
are  particularly  serviceable  for  this  purpose.  If  the  reading  does  not  put  the 
listener  in  as  good  a  position  as  the  reader,  the  reading  can  hardly  be  called  in- 
telligent. All  the  qualities  of  good  reading  are  essential  constituents  of  intelli- 
gent reading,  and  the  absence  of  any  one  is  a  defect. 

3.  Expression. — This  is  the  highest  quality  of  good  reading.  It  embraces 
intelligent  reading  and  something  more,  for  reading  may  be  intelligent  without 
being  expressive.  The  reader  enters  into  the  spirit  of  the  author,  and  gives  it 
efficient  interpretation.  The  beauties  of  the  language  are  presented  so  as  to 
appeal  to  the  audience.  For  its  successful  production  it  requires  a  very  sympa- 
thetic nature ;  a  nature  that  can  feel  the  sentiments  and  emotions  revealed  with 
sufficient  reality  to  give  them  vitality.  It  is  most  difficult  to  secure  ;  but  so  far 
as  it  can  be  imparted,  it  may  be  done  through  the  aid  of  suitable  subject  matter, 
good  pattern  work,  the  cultivation  of  the  vocal  powers  of  the  class,  by  plenty  of 
practice  for  fluency,  by  the  cultivation  of  the  heart  as  well  as  the  head,  by  ex- 
planation, and  by  recitation.  Perhaps  the  recitation  of  sympathetic  pieces  will 
be  the  best  means,  but  dialogues,  extracts  from  Shakespeare's  plays,  and  kindred 
pieces,  will  also  be  serviceable. 

From  this  list  of  the  qualities  of  good  reading  the  young  teacher  will  easily 
be  able  to  enumerate  the  chief  faults  of  reading.  He  has  only  to  present  the 
converse  of  each  quality,  such  as  bad  pronunciation,  imperfect  articulation,  etc., 
and  the  short  description  appended  under  each  head  will  enable  him  to  recog- 
nise the  fault  and  to  suggest  its  cure. 


174  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

SXLENT  RSADING. 

Silent  reading  may  be  practised  sometimes,  but  always  under 
supervision,  and  only  in  the  higher  classes,  where  draft  and  simul- 
taneous reading  are  less  suitable  than  in  the  lower  classes.  A 
portion  of  reading  may  be  mapped  out,  and  the  class  allowed  to 
read  it,  but  some  oral  questioning  should  follow.  A  \itt\e  preparatory 
explanation,  skilfully  and  pertinently  given,  would  arouse  interest 
and  make  the  exercise  more  successful.  The  practice  has  its  advan- 
tages. The  children  are  taught  to  cultivate  a  love  for  reading  in 
this  way,  and  this  love  may  show  itself  in  home  reading  through 
the  medium  of  the  school  or  circulating  library.  The  process  is 
pleasurable,  for  they  read  with  little  or  no  restriction ;  they  are 
continuously  occupied ;  they  learn  to  rely  on  themselves  for 
grasping  the  point  and  meaning  of  the  subject  matter;  they  are 
not  harassed  by  the  many  points  of  discipline  incidental  to  an 
oral  reading  lesson ;  they  read  with  greater  physical  comfort ; 
they  read  more  than  by  the  oral  method  ;  and  they  become  better 
spellers. 

SIMULTANEOUS  READING. 

I.  Description. — The  method  and  quantity  will  vary  according 
to  the  class.  Roughly  speaking,  there  are  three  stages :  (a) 
Words  ;  (b)  Phrases  ;  (c)  Sentences. 

1.  Words. — The  teacher  reads  a  word ;  the  class  pronounces 
it  slowly  after  him,  the  enunciation  being  slow  and  distinct  in 
each  case.  This  process  is  followed  to  the  end  of  the  sentence. 
Repetition  will  probably  be  necessary.  Then  the  sentence  can 
be  read  by  a  few  boys  individually.  A  few  sentences  may  be 
treated  in  this  way,  and  they  will  be  sufficient  for  one  lesson. 

2.  Phrases. — Here  a  few  words  are  first  read  by  the  teacher, 
and  then  repeated  by  the  class,  who  point  to  the  words  as  they 
are  read.  So  far  as  possible,  the  teacher  will  make  the  phrases 
notional,  and  for  this  purpose  the  number  of  words  will  vary.  A 
short  chapter  can  be  treated  in  this  way,  and  each  chapter  should 
be  mastered  as  follows  : — 

■  {a)  The  teacher  reads  a  phrase  ;  the  class  reads  the  next  phrase.  This  pro- 
ceeds to  the  completion  of  \h&  first  period. 

{b)  The  teacher  then  pattern  reads  the  sentence.  The  class  copies  simul- 
taneously. 

{c)  A  few  scholars  might  then  be  asked  to  read  the  sentence  individually. 

\d)  A  whole  paragraph  could  then  be  recapitulated  by  individual  reading. 

\e)  The  whole  chapter  could  be  thus  treated,  paragraph  by  paragraph. 


READING. 


175 


{/)  For  variety  and  emulation  the  class  might  then  be  divided  into  two 
sections,  each  section  reading  set  portions  alternately  and  simul- 
taneously. 

[g]  The  final  step  should  be  to  read  the  whole  chapter  individually. 

3.  Sentences. — The  pupils  are  now  ready  for  sentences  from 

their  training  in  the  last  method.     This  is  the  best  method  : — 

{a)  The  teacher  reads  a  sentence,  or  several  sentences,  slowly,  with  good 
emphasis  and  expression. 

[b)  The  children  follow  simultaneously,  copying  the  pattern  of  the  teacher. 

The  whole  lesson  can  be  treated  in  this  way. 

[c)  Sectional  emulative  simultaneous  reading  should  follow. 

[d)  Individual  reading  again  should  be  the  final  stage. 

H.  VThen  Used. — In  the  early  stages  the  practice  is  useless 
unless  the  child  is  following  with  its  eye  what  it  is  saying  with  its 
voice.  This  makes  pointing  a  necessity,  otherwise  the  child  will 
repeat  from  memory,  or  catch  up  what  the  other  scholars  are 
repeating.  For  these  reasons  it  should  be  used  with  some  modera- 
tion in  the  earliest  classes.  As  soon  as  the  eye  can  recognise 
words,  then  it  may  be  used  more  generally.  It  will  be  used  most 
in  the  lower  classes  of  the  upper  departments  and  in  the  upper 
classes  of  the  infant  departments.  In  the  higher  classes  it  has 
its  uses,  and  in  the  large  classes  of  modern  primary  schools  these 
uses  are  important  ;  but  the  more  individual  reading  a  teacher 
can  give  to  his  pupils,  the  better  for  the  pupils. 


Advantages. 


1.  It  increases  the  quantity  of  reading 
for  the  class. 

2.  It  increases  the  command  over  the 
organs  of  voice,  and  so  facilitates  y?«encj. 

3.  It  improves  pronunciation,  enunciation, 
and  articulation  if  carefully  taught.  Each 
has  to  go  the  same  pace,  and  each  is 
encouraged  under  cover  of  his  class-fellows' 
voices  to  greater  vocal  effort. 

4.  The  pitch  of  the  voice  is  regulated, 
and  modulation  is  learned,  whilst  common 
faults  of  intonation  are  cured. 

5.  It  improves  the  pace  of  the  reading, 
stimulating  the  slow  and  checking  the  fast. 

6.  It  modifies  individual  mannerisms. 

7.  It  improves  the  intelligence  in  some 
cases,  especially  when  dove-tailed  with 
individual  reading.  From  the  pattern 
reading  of  the  teacher,  and  from  the  ex- 
ample and  influence  of  the  better  readers, 
more  expression  is  given,  and  the  sense  of 
the  subject  matter  is  better  grasped. 


Disadvantages. 


1.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the 
reader  follows  with  his  eye  the 
words  he  repeats  after  the 
teacher. 

2.  Children,  from  too  much 
repetition,  get  to  repeat  from 
memory,  and  it  has  often  been 
found  that  they  can  proceed  with 
the  lesson  without  the  aid  of  the 
book. 

3.  It  may,  in  the  hands  of  a 
poor,  lazy,  or  careless  teacher, 
encourage  idleness,  and  even 
deception. 

4.  Unless  taught  with  care  it 
may  produce  inaccuracy  and  in- 
distinctness, and  accentuate  the 
vocal  faults  it  is  well  fitted  to  cure. 


176  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

BACK'WARD  READERS. 

The  treatment  of  backward  readers  is  a  difficulty  common  to 
all  schools.  They  require  special  attention,  and  should  receive  it 
both  during,  before,  and  after  the  lesson.  The  treatment  will 
depend  upon  the  cause,  which  may  be  the  result  of  inaptitude  or 
general  dulness. 

I.  Inaptitude. — The  poor  reading  may  be  simply  a  special 
case  of  inaptitude  through  bad  or  neglected  teaching,  or  through 
relative  dislike,  owing  to  a  strong  preference  for  other  subjects. 
Where  special  aptitudes  exist,  the  teacher  should  take  advantage 
of  these  to  improve  the  reading.  A  pupil  may  excel  at  some 
other  subject,  although  he  may  read  and  spell  badly.  The  treat- 
ment is  easy  here.  Time  can  well  be  spared  from  the  strong 
subject  for  the  weak  one,  and  thus  more  practice  will  be  obtained. 
The  difficulties  lie  chiefly  with  word  naming. 

H.  Greneral  Dulness. — Special  treatment  will  be  required  in 
these  cases. 

1.  Before  the  Lesson. 

{a)  The  backward  scholars  can  be  taught  some  of  the  more  diflficult  words, 
which  can  be  written  on  the  B.B.  and  learnt.  The  words  should  be 
briejly  explained  where  necessary,  as  they  then  become  intelligent  pic- 
tures to  the  children.  The  better  readers  could  be  employed  at  some 
other  subject. 

[b)  A  list  of  the  hardest  or  strangest  words  could  have  been  given  them  the 

night  before  to  learn,  the  teacher  having  previously  pronounced  each 
word  carefully  with  the  class. 

[c)  Where  parental  co-opei-ation  is  assured,  the  boys  might  be  permitted  to 

take  home  the  reading  book  for  the  purpose  of  reading  the  chapter 
through.  Where  home  help  is  forthcoming  this  assistance  would  be 
valuable.  But,  as  a  rule,  this  can  only  be  done  in  better-class  schools 
— generally  where  it  is  least  wanted — and  even  there  it  will  be  found 
expensive,  and  at  times  not  over  thorough. 

[d)  Ti-anscription,  dictation,  ox  composition  may  be  used  before  the  reading 

lesson,  to  make  them  familiar  with  the  the  chief  mechanical  difficulties. 

2.  During  the  Lesson. 

[a)  Bad  readers  should  be  well  under  the  teacher's  eye,  so  that  he  may  super- 

vise them  well ;  and  he  should  see  that  they  point  and  follow  carefully 
all  that  is  read. 

[b)  A  good  reader,   as  a  rule,  should  follow  the  pattern  reading  of  the 

teacher.  //  breeds  confidence  in  the  boys,  for  the  gulf  between  boy  and 
boy  is  less  than  that  between  teacher  and  boy.  A  backward  reader 
should  then  follow.  He  should  read  the  piece  through  twice — thrice, 
if  necessary — but  he  must  read  it  perfectly  before  he  finishes. 

[c)  The  weaker  readers,   being  grouped  together,   might   read   a   portion 

simultaneously  after  the  teacher,  and  then  simultaneously  without  the 
teacher,  to  be  followed  by  one  or  two  individual  readers. 

3.  After  the  Lesson. 

{a)  As  word  naming  is  the  chief  difficulty  of  the  backward  readers  the 


READING.  177 

teacher  might  pursue  the  same  course  as  before  the  lesson.     His  list  of 

words  will  now  have  decreased,  and  a  few  minutes  ought  now  to  be 

sufficient. 
{b)  Where  home  work  is  taken,  the  class  might  be  asked  to  reproduce  the 

substance  of  the  chapter  as  an  exercise  in  composition,  or  the  composi^ 

tion  might  be  done  in  school. 
{c)  A  dictation  lesson  might  be  given  embodying  the  chief  difficult  words 

which  ought  to  have  been  previously  prepared  and  learned. 
{d)  The  class  might  do  some  transcription  from  the  more  difficult  portions 

of  the  chapter,  and  learn  the  words  as  they  write  them. 

Remember,  it  is  unwise,  as  a  rule,  to  place  an  older  scholar  in  a  lower  class, 
however  backward  he  may  be.  His  feelings  are  hurt ;  he  is  probably  thrown 
into  a  strong  emotional  state,  which  is  most  unfavourable  to  intellectual 
progress;  and  a  hatred  for  the  subject  will  be  engendered,  because  his 
sympathies  and  tastes  are  probably  not  those  of  his  class-fellows. 

READING  BOOKS. 

I.  Their  Qualities. — Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
choice  of  reading  books,  as  they  bear  largely  upon  the  character 
of  the  reading  of  the  school.  A  book  should  never  be  rejected 
because  it  contains  a  few  more  pages  than  another,  or  a  larger 
proportion  of  harder  words.  Such  books  are  not  always  the  most 
difficult  to  read  or  to  teach.  No  book  should  be  selected  which 
does  not  embrace  all  the  following  principles  : — 

1.  It  must  be  well  printed  and  attractive,  and  calculated  to  give  pleasure. 

2.  It  should  impart  some  knowledge,  and  it  should  not  be  too  childish  or 

silly.     A  book  can  be  humorous  without  either  of  these  attributes. 

3.  It  should  be  written  in  English,  and  not  in  the  gibberish  found  in  some 

early  reading  books. 

4.  It  must  be  able  to  maintain  interest.     To  do  this  consecutive  stories  are 

perhaps  the  best  for  young  scholars.  Curiosity  and  the  interest  of 
pursuit  are  great  in  this  respect  in  young  children.  Short  and  scrappy 
pieces  should  be  avoided,  as  they  kill  interest.  The  so-called  "  Educa- 
tive" books  are  rarely  a  success  as  reading  books,  and  if  information 
be  given  at  all  it  must  be  suitable  in  style. 

5.  The  book  must  be  prog7-essive.     Every  lesson  should  contain  a  few  new 

words,  slightly  increasing  in  difficulty. 

6.  The  subject   matter  should  aim  to  cultivate  the  affections  and  tnoral 

feelings,  without  obtruding  the  moral  of  the  story.  The  moral  can  be 
wrapped  up  in  the  story,  and  so  become  more  effective. 

n.  Variety. — There  should  always  be  more  than  one  set  of 
reading  books  to  a  class,  as  the  pleasure  of  reading  is  destroyed 
by  the  monotony  resulting  from  a  limited  supply.  The  affections 
and  moral  feelings  are  deadened  by  the  endless  repetition  of  the 
same  lesson,  which  thus  becomes  a  mere  mechanical  exercise, 
and  nauseates  the  pupils.  But  little  knowledge  can  be  imparted, 
and  no  love  of  reading  can  be  implanted,  or  good  spelling  outside 
such  books  be  expected,  or  much  intelligence  be  displayed,  where 
the  reading  matter  is  foolishly  too  limited.  It  has  been  demon- 
strated repeatedly  that  those  schools  read  best  which  do  not  con- 

12 


lyS  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

vert  the  minimum  laid  down  in  the  Code  into  a  maximum. 
Remember  that  one  of  the  great  aims  of  the  teaching  is  to  im- 
plant a  love  for  the  subject  in  the  pupils,  which  is  best  attained 
by  plenty  and  variety  in  the  reading  books. 

HI.  Reading'  Books  in  Class  Subjects. 

1.  "Where  the  Class  Subjects  are  Taught. — Geographical, 
historical,  and  elementary  science  reading  books  are  valuable 
instruments  of  instruction  in  these  subjects.  The  books  should 
be  used  in  all  standards  above  the  second.  It  is  optional  whether 
they  are  used  in  the  first  two  standards ;  but  where  the  books  are 
suitable  it  is  desirable.  The  best  reading  books  for  the  higher 
standards  are  those  which — 

(i)  Are  descriptive  and  explanatory. 

(2)  Are  suitably  illustrated. 

(3)  Contain  sufficient,  varied,  and  interesting  matter. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  lessons  in  the  reading  book  should 
cover  the  whole  area  of  the  course  of  instruction  adopted  for  the 
class  subject.  It  is  presumed  that  the  teaching  in  such  a  subject 
will  be  mainly  oral. 

The  chief  uses  of  the  reading  book  are  : — 

1.  To  give  greater  definiteness  to  the  teaching. 

2.  To  make  thorough  recapitulation  easier  and  more  effective. 

3.  To  invest  the  subject  with  new  interest. 

— (Revised  instructions  to  H.M.  Inspectors.) 

2.  VThere  the  Subjects  are  not   Taught. — Here    the  books 

will  require  to  be  chosen  with  great  care,  and  they  should  possess 

all  the  following  characteristics  : — 

[a]  The  subject  matter  must  be  varied  and  suitable  to  each  standard. 

{^)  The  matter  must  be  interesting  ;  suggestive  rather  than  exhaustive. 

\c)  The   facts   and   ideas  should  be  expressed  in   language  suited  to   the 

abilities  of  the  children. 
[d)  The  book  should  be  well  and  suitably  illustrated. 
\e)  The  lessons  should  be  suitable  in  length. 
{/)  The  book  should  be  written  on  some  definite  plan  ;  e.g.,  simple  stories 

for  an  early  standard  ;  biographies  for  another,  and  so  on. 
{g)   Technical  te7'ms  should  be  avoided  in  all  but  the  highest  standards  ;  and 

English  equivalents  should  be  found  for  them. 
[h)  The   teaching,   so   far   as   set   forth  in  the  subject   matter,   should  be 

objective  and  experimental,  and  a  proper  use  should  be  made  of  maps, 

pictures,  charts,  and  diagrams. 
(?)  There   should  be  no  crafn  elements  about   the  book.       Long  lists  of 

names,  tables,  and  tabulations  should  be  omitted.     It  must  always  be 

remembered  that  the  books  are  reading  books, 
(y)  Difficult  woi-ds  and  ideas  should  be  dealt  with  as  in  an  ordinary  reading 

lesson . 

If  these  suggestions  are  practically  heeded,  the  books  will  be 
found  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  school  education.    The  aim  should 


READING.  179 

be  to  quicken  the  intelligence  by  a  revelation  of  the  interest  of 
common  things,  places,  and  the  incidents  of  everyday  life.  If  the 
reading  be  attractive,  a  taste  for  further  reading  will  have  been 
given,  and  this  is  far  more  valuable  than  mere  information  which 
a  tenacious  memory  may  retain  from  the  books.  The  spirit  of 
inquiry,  the  thirst  for  knowledge,  the  widening  of  the  interest,  and 
consequently  the  increase  in  the  pleasurable  and  useful  poten- 
tialities of  the  pupils,  will  be  a  result  which,  although  probably 
small  in  evidence,  ought  yet  to  gratify  the  teacher  as  the  best 
success  that  can  attend  his  efforts. 

Fairy  Tales  as  Reading  Matter. 

Should  these  fairy  tales  form  part  of  the  literature  of  our 
school  children  ?  There  is  a  conflict  of  opinion  on  the  subject ; 
and  arguments  pro  and  con  have  been  advanced,  but  the  weight  of 
argument  seems  to  be  in  their  favour. 

I.  For. 

1.  Pleasure. — They  are  undoubted  sources  of  pleasure,  and  largely  help  to 
increase  the  sum  total  of  child  happiness,  for  they  carry  children  into  regions 
where  pure  and  unadulterated  happiness  is  supreme.  They  also  afford  a  stock  of 
pleasant  memories. 

2.  Education. —  They  breed  a  love  for  reading,  and  for  this  reason  are  worthy 
of  retention.     They  also  cultivate  the  imagination. 

3.  Morality.  —They  are  emotional  in  their  effects,  and  exercise  an  influence 
on  the  hearts  and  dispositions  of  the  children.  Every  good  fairy  tale  has  an 
ethical  purport.  It  helps  to  solve  the  problems  of  life  by  exciting  sympathy 
with  the  good  and  disgust  with  the  bad.  Whatever  (if  anything)  can  be  said 
against  the  fairy  tale  in  this  respect,  can  be  said  at  least  with  equal  force 
against  the  novel,  the  romance,  and  the  stage.  In  fact,  it  is  an  attractive  way 
of  teaching  virtue  without  unduly  obtruding  the  moral  on  the  children. 

4.  Faith. — They  teach  the  children  to  believe  in  friendly,  though  invisible, 
forces..  The  "  guardian  angel  "  becomes  almost  a  reality  to  them,  and  a  mental 
attitude  is  formed  favourable  to  the  reception  of  great  religious  truths,  which 
rest  on  faith  as  their  foundation. 

8.  Hope.  —They  help  the  young  soul  with  its  hopes  and  its  desires  to  expand, 
and  to  aim  at  a  high  ideal.  They  lead  to  a  hope  for  a  happiness  unknown 
in  real  life,  but  which  nevertheless  exists,  because  it  is  experienced  under  the 
spell  of  a  fairy  tale. 

n.  Against. 

1.  Imagination. — They  are  said  to  pervert  and  harm  the  imagination, 
being  the  creatures  of  unbridled  imaginations  themselves.  The  difficulty  in 
training  the  imagination  is  to  regulate  it  whilst  stimulating  its  growth. 

2.  Unreality.— They  give  children  false  ideas  of  real  life,  and  so  unfit  them 
for  their  struggle  with  a  matter-of-fact  world.  They  breed  folly  in  weak 
minds,  and  awaken  longings  which  can  never  be  gratified,  and  so  produce  a 
state  of  chronic  unrest. 

3.  Bias.— The  wicked  uncle,  the  unkind  stepmother,  and  the  well-specified 
characters  of  fairy  life,  often  transmit  a  strong  bias  against  their  supposed 
prototypes  in  real  life. 


i8o  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

4.  Superfluous. — We  now  have  a  rich  hterature,  actually  and  potentially,  and 
whatever  might  have  been  said  in  their  favour  in  early  days  is  of  much  less 
value  now. 

5.  Superstition. — They  appeared  in  a  more  ignorant  and  a  more  super- 
stitious age  than  the  present.  They  were  written  for  a  superstitious  people, 
and  were  based  on  superstition,  and  are  therefore  very  unsuitable  for  the  present 
enlightened  age. 

RECITATION. 

Recitation  is  a  great  aid  to  a  good  vocal  delivery  and  intelli- 
gent reading.  Here  the  mechanical  difficulties  are  at  a  minimum, 
and  almost  the  whole  attention  can  be  concentrated  on  the  intelli- 
gent rendering  of  the  passage.  Really  good  reading  is  not  the 
gift  of  the  many,  for  it  makes  considerable  physical  and  mental 
demands  upon  pupils.  Those  demands  can  be  partly  met,  with 
the  assistance  of  other  aids,  by  good  practice  in  recitation,  which 
assists  in  developing  the  requisite  qualities. 

I.  Physical  Qualities. 

[a]  Confidence.^ — Many  pupils  are  afraid  of  their  own  voices  when  reciting, 
or  they  are  ignorant  of  their  own  capabilities.  Recitation  removes  the 
one  and  reveals  the  other  where  it  exists.  From  reciting  in  chorus  the 
pupil  gains  sufficient  confidence  to  recite  alone. 

{!>)  Yocal  Delivery. — A  thorough  control  of  the  vocal  organs  is  required 
for  good  recitation,  and  practice  will  help  to  give  this.  Clearness, 
distinctness,  well-pitched  tone,  with  good  articulation  and  varying 
cadence,  are  absolutely  essential  qualities  of  the  voice  for  creditable 
work  of  this  kind. 

[c]  Strength.— Exercise  strengthens  faculty.  A  weak,  piping  voice,  a  bull- 
throated  larynx — both  are  obstacles.  The  one  needs  strength  to 
develop  it,  the  other  practice  to  restrain  it.  Varying  demands  are 
often  made  upon  the  physical  capabilities  in  rendering  recitation  in  the 
higher  classes  ;  the  range  may  vary,  from  the  impassioned  utterance  to 
the  gentlest  whisper. 

II.  Mental  Qualities. 

(a)  Intelligence. — The  pupil  may  be  drilled  to  repeat  certain  sounds  at  a 

certain  pitch,  but  if  there  is  no  intelligence  the  audience  is  soon  aware 
of  the  fact.  The  pupil  must  understand  what  he  is  saying,  and  he 
must  give  expression  to  that  understanding  by  voice  (and  gesture  some- 
times). 

(b)  Soul. — It  is  a  fine  means  for  cultivating  the  soul  or  finer  feelings.       It  is 

an  antidote  to  that  metallic  vocalism  which  chills.  Teach  the  pupils  to 
enter  into  the  feelings,  the  sentiments  of  the  piece,  and  to  translate 
those  feelings  into  their  voices.  All  this  can  be  done  by  recitation,  for 
the  amount  is  limited,  and  there  is  time  for  plenty  of  explanation, 
pattern  work,  and  repetition.  The  correct  rendering  of  the  piece  by 
the  teacher  throws  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  sentiments  expressed  in 
the  extract. 

m.  Advantages. — These  are  not  confined  to  reading  only. 
{a)  It  improves  the  taste  by  forming  acquaintance  with  the  choice  portions 
of  some  of  our  choice  authors. 


READING. 


i8i 


{l>)  It  cultivates  the  imagination,  for  poetry  is  a  great  field  for  imagination. 
The  power  of  picturing  what  has  never  been  seen  but  only  described 
is  of  the  utmost  value  to  education. 
As  the  fancy  often  requires  restraining  it  must  be  guided,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
methods  of  doing  it.     In  other  cases  it  requires  stimulating  ;   but  in  all 
cases  the  natural  laws  of  its  operation  must  be  followed.      For  this  purpose 
the  pieces  selected  for  recitation  should  be  graded. 
(c)  It  widens  the  scholar's  mind  by  giving  him  new  thoughts. 
{d)  It  improves  the  power  of  composition  by  giving  him  the  best  models 

for  imitation,  and  by  storing  specimens  in  his  memory. 
(e)  It  has  already  been  shown  to  improve  the  style  of  the  reading. 

rv.  Pieces  Suitable  for  Recitation. 


Standard. 


Title  of  Piece. 


Author's 
Name. 


No.  of 
Lines. 


The  Loss  of  the  Royal  George 
The  Soldier's  Dream 
The  Death  of  the  Flowers 
I  Remember,  I  Remember 
The  Voice  of  Spring 
The  Child's  First  Grief  - 


Cowper. 

Campbell. 

Bryant. 

Hood. 

Howitt. 

Hemans. 


The  Shepherd  in  Winter 
Casabianca       -        -        - 
Dickens  in  Camp     - 
Bruce  and  the  Spider 
Lord  UUin's  Daughter    - 
Hector  and  Andromache 


Scott. 

Hemans. 

Bret  Harte. 

Cook. 

Campbell. 

Pope. 


HL 


The  Cloud 

We  are  Seven  -        -        - 
Ode  to  the  North-East  Wind 
Lucy  Gray        -        -        - 
The  Battle  of  Blenheim  - 
Ye  Mariners  of  England 


Shelley. 

Wordsworth. 

C.  Kingsley. 

Wordsworth. 

Southey. 

Campbell. 


IV. 


Brave  Lord  Willoughby  - 

The  Night  before  Waterloo 

To  a  Skylark    - 

The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus 

The  Shipwreck 

The  Slave's  Dream 


Old  Ballad. 

Byron. 

Shelley. 

Longfellow. 

Byron. 

Longfellow. 


84 


80 


The  Battle  of  Agincourt  -        -        -        - 

Horatius   ------- 

On  the  Receipt  of  my  Mother's  Picture 
Ode  on  a  Distant  Prospect  of  Eton  College 
Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard 
Nanhaught  the  Deacon   -        -        -        - 


Drayton. 

Macaulay. 

Cowper. 

Gray. 

Gray. 

Whittier. 


120 
103 
121 
100 
128 
107 


VL  and 
VII. 


L'AUegro 

II  Penseroso     -        -        -        - 
Mark  Antony's  Speech     - 
Brutus  and  Cassius 
Hubert  and  Arthur  - 
Henry  VIII.— Fall  of  Wolsey 


Milton. 

Milton. 

Shakespeare. 

Shakespeare. 

Shakespeare. 

Shakespeare. 


i52 
176 
156 
151 
150 
154 


i82  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I.— What  is  meant  by  simultaneous  reading?  How  should  it  b8  conducted,  and 
what  is  the  use  of  it  ? 

a.^What  is  meant  by  tone,  accent,  emphasis,  and  expression  in  reading  ?  Say  why 
they  need  special  attention,  and  how  you  can  best  deal  with  them. 

3. — Say  what  sort  of  reading  lessons  you  have  found  most  interesting  to  young  chil- 
dren, and  describe  the  way  in  which  you  would  try  to  secure  distinct  articulation. 

4. — Name  a  few  words  which  are  specially  difficult  for  young  children  to  read 
owing  to  the  presence  of  silent  letters. 

5. — What  is  meant  by  distinct  articulation  in  reading  ?  Name  any  words  which 
present  special  difficulty  to  learners,  and  mention  any  form  of  exercise  that  is  most 
useful  in  correcting  faulty  articulation. 

6. — Explain  the  use  which  a  teacher  should  make  of  simultaneous  and  of  pattern 
reading,  and  say  what  objection  (if  any)  there  is  to  an  excessive  use  of  either  method. 

7. — In  teaching  the  elements  of  reading  to  young  children,  say  whether  it  is  better 
to  begin  with  little  words  and  afterwards  call  attention  to  the  letters,  or  to  begin  with 
the  alphabet  and  afterwards  make  up  simple  words.     Give  your  reasons. 

8. — Give  explanations  (brief)  of  any  difficulties  in  the  following  passage,  proposed  as 
a  reading  lesson  to  scholars  in  the  Second  Standard  : — 

"  Who  is  this  that  cometh  from  the  south,  thinly  clad  in  a  light  transparent 
garment  ?  Her  breath  is  hot  and  sultry ;  she  seeks  the  refreshment  of  the 
cool  shade ;  she  seeks  the  crystal  brook  to  bathe  her  languid  limbs.  The 
tanned  hay-makers  welcome  her  coming,  and  the  sheep-shearer,  who  clips  the 
fleeces  of  his  flock  with  his  sounding  shears." 

9. — What  are  the  chief  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  teaching  infants  to  read  ? 
Detail  the  apparatus  required  for  children  below  seven  years  of  age. 

10. — Detail  some  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  teaching  reading  by  the 
alphabetic  method. 

II. — Write  out  some  sentences  containing  five  or  six  words  which  would  present 
difficulties  to  each  of  the  three  lowest  standards,  and  explain  the  progressive  character 
of  your  method. 

12. — What  preparation  should  be  made  by  a  young  pupil  teacher  before  giving  a 
reading  lesson  to  a  lower  class,  both  as  regards  the  language  and  the  matter  of  the 
lesson  ? 

13. — In  the  following  sentence  explain  the  peculiar  difficulties  presented  by  the 
words  in  italics  in  the  early  stages  of  reading : — 

"  He  would  take  no  pains  to  teach  any  boy  who  could  not  at  least  write  what 
boys  of  eight  years  old  can  write  ". 

14. — What  especial  care  would  you  bestow  upon  the  less  advanced  readers  in  your 
class  before,  during,  or  after  a  reading  lesson  ?  How  can  home  lessons  be  utilised  for 
teaching  reading? 

15. — What  should  be  the  next  steps  in  reading  after  a  child  has  mastered  the  forms 
of  the  letters  and  powers  of  the  vowels  ?     Give  examples  of  a  few  such  lessons. 

16. — Explain  how  the  reading  of  dialogue  and  recitation  may  be  employed  to  remedy 
want  of  intelligence  in  reading.  For  what  reasons  should  more  than  one  set  of  reading 
books  be  employed  in  each  class  ? 

17. — Which  subjects  of  instruction  can  be  best  taught  by  reading  books,  and  which 
by  oral  lessons?     Give  reasons  in  each  case  for  your  classification. 

18. — Name  some  of  the  qualities  of  good  reading. 

19. — What  special  help  should  be  given  to  an  older  child  backward  in  reading,  to 
obviate  his  being  placed  in  a  class  of  younger  children  ?  What  harm  would  it  do  a 
child  to  be  so  placed  ? 

20. — Give  some  rules  which  you  intend  to  follow  for  securing  (i)  distinct  articula- 
tion ;  (2)  intelligent  expression  in  reading. 

21. — What  are  the  commonest  faults  which  you  have  found  in  the  reading  of  chil- 
dren ?     How  would  you  correct  these  faults  ? 

22. — It  is  sometimes  complainedthat  children  do  not  read  well  because  their  reading 
lessons  are  constantly  interrupted  by  the  oral  spelling  of  the  more  difficult  words.  Do 
you  consider  such  interruption  necessary,  and,  if  not,  how  may  good  spelling  be  attained 
without  it  ? 

23.— Explain  what  may  be  done  by  the  help  of  reading  books  to  impart  geographical 
and  historical  information  in  schools  in  which  geography  and  history  are  not  taken  as 
class  subjects. 

24. — Name  some  poetical  pieces  or  extracts  suited  for  recitation  in  any  three  of  the 
classes,  either  in  an  infant  school  or  in  a  school  of  older  children,  and  say  what  is  the 
use  of  memory  exercises  of  this  kind. 

25. — What  is  meant  by  style  and  expression  in  reading,  and  how  can  they  best  be 
taught  ? 

26. — What  is  the  best  way  of  arranging  a  class  for  a  reading  lesson  so  as  to  secure 
(fl)  distinctness  of  utterance,  and  (b)  readipess  on  the  part  of  the  scholars  to  observe  and 
gorreet  mist3)<es  ? 


READING.  ,  183 

27. — It  is  said  that  some  children  know  their  reading  books  almost  by  heart,  and 
that  when  examined  they  are  only  reciting,  not  reading.  How  could  you  detect  this 
fault,  and  by  what  means  could  you  guard  against  it  ? 

28. — What  is  the  use  of  pattern  reading  in  teaching  a  class  to  read  ?  Mention  any 
common  faults  which  a  good  teacher  should  avoid  in  giving  such  lessons. 

29. — Explain  what  is  the  best  use  to  make  of  a  box  of  movable  letters  in  an  infant 
class. 

30.— Describe  a  plan  followed  in  your  school  in  beginning  to  teach  the  youngest 
children  to  read. 

31. — Point  out  the  silent  letters  in  "  light,"  "  height,"  "  which,"  "  colour,"  "  tremble  ". 

32. — What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  simultaneous  reading,  and  when 
and  how  should  the  practice  be  adopted  ? 

33. — What  are  the  chief  points  to  be  kept  in  view  in  teaching  the  art  of  reading  ? 
Name  the  advantages,  if  any,  of  exercises  in  silent  reading  in  school. 


184 


CHAPTER  X. 

SPELLING. 

Spelling  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  branches  of  school  educa- 
tion. Children  learn  to  spell  correctly  with  difficulty,  and  forget 
what  they  have  learnt  with  ease ;  they  spend  years  in  acquiring, 
and  little  more  than  weeks  in  forgetting.  Some  never  spell  cor- 
rectly at  all ;  and  absolutely  correct  spelling  is  anything  but  a 
general  accomplishment,  even  among  educated  people.  The 
subject  is  one  mass  of  anomalies,  and  the  national  waste  in  acquir- 
ing such  a  system  is  beyond  computation.  In  company  with  our 
cumbrous  system  of  compound  rules  in  arithmetic,  it  handicaps 
our  youth  heavily  in  the  educational  race,  and  prevents  very 
valuable  time  being  spent  in  a  much  more  productive  manner. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  systems  of  phonetic  spell- 
mg,  but  with  no  success  at  present.  The  spread  of  phonography 
or  shorthand  may  yet  have  a  big  influence  in  modifying  our 
spelling  into  something  easier,  especially  if  it  should  ever  become 
generally  taught.  The  objections  to  change  rest  on  mighty  bases 
which  will  require  much  to  move  them.  The  habits  of  the  people, 
their  reluctance  to  face  the  labour  of  a  change,  the  opposition  of 
the  printing  trade,  the  great  loss  of  capital  involved,  and  the  de- 
struction of  the  historic  evidence  contained  on  the  faces  of  the 
words  themselves,  will  always  be  obstacles  to  change,  however 
desirable  some  may  think  it.  In  a  language  so  arbitrary  as  ours, 
spelling  must  always  be  a  difficulty,  hence  the  teacher  needs  to 
study  the  best  ways  and  means  of  teaching  the  subject. 
"Ways  of  Teaching  Spelling. 

1.  The  Reading  Lesson. 

{a)  Spelling  is  a  matter  for  the  eye.  Reading  gives  plenty  of  practice  to  the 
eye,  and  the  recurrence  of  word  pictures  fixes  them  in  the  memory 
through  the  eye. 

(d)  Formal  spelling  forms  a  part  of  many  reading  lessons,  The  eye,  the 
ear,  and  the  voice  all  unite  to  fix  word  impressions. 


SPELLING.  185 

2.  Lists  of  Words. — These  are  sometimes  given  as  home  work.  The 
words  are  generally  selected  from  the  school  reading  books,  and  this  method 
has  practically  supplanted  the  use  of  the  old  spelling  book.  The  tneaning 
should  always  be  given,  as  it  brings  intelligence  and  interest  to  bear  on  the 
work.  The  old  spelling  books  were  often  published  with  meanings,  but  as  ex- 
planation was  the  exception  probably,  and  not  the  rule,  the  meanings  were  of 
little  use,  often  being  mere  synonyms  or  being  expressed  in  language  as 
obscure  or  meaningless  as  the  word  itself.  The  words  should  be  grouped  (and 
this  could  be  done  in  several  ways),  which  would  bring  variety — another 
essential  for  interest  ;  e.g. : — 

1.  Like  combinations  and  unlike  sounds )    jrre^ular 

2.  Like  sounds  and  unlike  combinations )  ^        ' 

3.  Like  sounds  and  like  combinations — Regular  or  phonetic. 
As  an  example,  take  the  words  rough,  should,  which,  many. 

Rough. — This  word  is  made  the  basisjfor  grouping  a  large  number  of  words, 
to  which  the  principles  of  comparison  and  contrast  are  applied  ;  e.g.  : — 
Rough  is  compared  with  Tough,  ruff,  puff,  buff,  stuff,  etc. 
,,        contrasted     ,,     Cough,  off,  north,  broth,  etc. 

,,     Dough,  although,  low,  know,  etc. 
,,     Bough,  plough,  sough,  cow,  etc. 
,,     Through,  hew,  knew,  hue,  Jew,  etc. 
Should  is  compared  with  Could,  would,  wood,  hood,  good,  etc. 

contrasted     ,,     Boulder,  moulder,  ghoul,  soul,  etc. 
Which  is  compared  with  Witch,  rich,  ditch,  hitch,  pitch,  etc. 

,,       cont}'asted     ,,     Greenwich,  Woolwich. 
Many  is  compared  with  Any,  penny,  jenny,  fenny. 
,,        contrasted     ,,     Company,  manifold,  manly, 

3.  Transcription. — See  notes  on  Transcription. 

4.  Dictation. — See  notes  on  Dictation. 

5.  Formal  Spelling  Lessons. — These  are  still  given  in  some  schools.  They 
are  profitable,  for  they  admit  oi graded  systematic  teaching.  Generally,  however, 
they  are  preliminaries  to  some  other  lesson  like  reading  or  dictation.  The 
teacher's  chief  task  for  success  is  to  make  such  lessons  interesting,  and  this  must 
be  done  by  classification,  suitable  explanation,  mark  giving  or  place  taking,  and 
by  a  bright,  sympathetic  manner  in  questioning. 

6.  General  Work. — Spelling  enters  into  most  of  the  general  work  of  the 
school.  It  is  a  chronic  difficulty,  and  requires  continuous  teaching  and  practice. 
Whenever  and  wherever  a  spelling  error  occurs,  as  a  rule,  then  and  there  it 
should  be  corrected. 

7.  Composition. — This  affords  a  good  test  of  spelling,  which  is  generally 
worse  in  composition  than  in  other  lessons.  The  divided  attention  demanded 
by  the  subject  probably  accounts  for  this.  Word  building  is  a  good  exercise, 
both  for  spelling,  composition,  and  grammar.  A  sample  syllabic  combination 
can  be  taken,  and  words  can  be  built  from  it ;  e.g. : — 

-at  c-at  sc-at  sc-at-ter  scat-ter-ed 

-at  p-at  sp-at  sp-at-u  sp-at-u-la 

not  -with  -stand  -ing 

nev  -er  -the  -less,     and  so  on. 

8.  Observation. — Childish  curiosity  and  activity  show  themselves  in  the 
reading  of  miscellaneous  matter  like  shop  names  and  advertisements.  Encourage 
it,  for  it  is  a  good  aid. 

9.  Literature.— Easy  story  books,  fables,  and  childish  literature  generally 
are  more  or  less  now  within  the  reach  of  most  children,  and  the  reading  of  these 
aids  spelling.  School  libraries  assist  older  scholars,  but  they  make  no  provision 
for  younger  scholars. 

10.  Spelling  Contests.— These  were  in  great  fashion  as  "Spelling  Bees"  a 
few  years  since ;  and  although  they  have  dropped  out  of  public  favour,  there  is 
no  reason  why  they  should  not  be  maintained  in  the  school.  They  stimulate 
emulation  and  effort,  and  that  desire  for  success  which  can  only  be  obtained  by 
constant  preparation. 


i86  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Faults  in  the  Teaching  of  Spelling^. 

1.  The  ear  and  the  tongue  are  appealed  to  rather  than  the  eye.     Both  should 

be  used,  but  there  should  be  ohservatioTi  as  well  as  repetition.  The 
deaf  and  dumb  generally  spell  correctly,  and  this  is  some  evidence  as 
to  the  value  of  the  eye.  Then  the  visual  or  pictorial  memory  is  stronger 
in  most  people  than  the  verbal,  hence  the  eye  should  be  used  more  than 
the  tongue  and  the  ear.  Spelling  is  essentially  a  matter  for  the  eye, 
for,  after  all,  it  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  mastery  of  form  ;  but 
the  tongue  and  the  ea''  can  be  brought  in  as  aids  to  strengthen  the 
associative  links. 

2.  Lists  of  discpn?iected  isolated  words  are  given  to  be  learnt,  whereas  they 

should  be  chosen  from  lessons  done  or  to  be  done. 

3.  The  number  of  syllables  is  generally  the  only  basis  of  classification.    This 

is  not  scientific.  The  words  should  be  grouped,  and  plenty  of  use 
made  of  contrast  and  comparison. 

4.  The  meanings  of  words  should  always  be  given,  not  in  set  definitions, 

but  in  suitable  explanation,  so  that  each  word  may  as  far  as  possible 
become  notional  to  the  class.  The  meanings,  when  required,  are  too 
often  overlooked  or  neglected. 

5.  Dictation  should  always  be  prepared  in  the  lower  classes,  so  that  the  right 

form  may  be  first  learned,  and  then  there  will  be  nothing  to  unlearn. 
Teachers  are  often  too  anxious  to  test  by  dictation  before  they  have 
prepared  by  spelling  or  transcription. 

6.  More  use  should  be  made  of  composition  exercises.     It  has  already  been 

pointed  out  that  spelling  is  often  worse  in  composition  than  in  other 
spelling  exercises,  and  it  generally  reveals  many  of  the  special  weak- 
nesses of  each  pupil.  The  teacher  then  knows  where  to  concentrate 
his  work. 

7.  There  should  be  lessons  in  word  building.     It  is  a  good  phonetic  and 

synthetic  exercise,  and  it  gives  confidence  to  the  children,  and  so  helps 
to  check  that  demoralisation  which  often  attacks  young  scholars  when 
they  are  undergoing  repeated  shocks  of  spelling  anomalies. 

8.  There  is  often  an  absence  of  incidental  aids  like  phrase  spelling,  classified 

spellings,  and  spelling  bees.  All  of  these  have  their  use  and  their 
value,  and  they  should  not  be  neglected. 

9.  Spellings  are  sometimes  taught  at  the  zvrong  time,  although  such  times 

must  be  very  rare.  But  to  obtrude  the  spelling  of  a  word  when  the 
class  is  deeply  interested  in  some  experiment,  illustration,  or  descrip- 
tion, is  to  attempt  the  right  thing  at  the  wrong  time. 

Difficulties  in  Spelling*. 

Our  anomalous  and  defective  alphabet  is  the  chief  source  of 
these  difficulties.  Mr.  Gill  in  his  School  Method  emphasises  this 
fact  by  showing  that  ten  selected  letters  have  thirty-eight  sounds, 
and  furthermore  that  seventeen  sounds  have  ninety-eight  different 
ways  of  representing  them.  These  are  the  difficulties  of  be- 
ginners. 

I.  Higher  Classes. — The  thorough  and  successful  teacher 
will  always  make  sufficient  preparation  for  all  lessons  where  pre- 
paration is  necessary;  and  so  in  spelling  preparatory  observations 
should  be  made  as  to  its  difficulties  before  proceeding  to  write 
from  dictation.  The  words  must  not  only  be  learnt,  but  the 
difficulties  as  they  exist  in  each  word  must  be  pointed  out  and 


SPELLING.  187 

compared  with  similar  syllables  and  similar  sounds.  These  diffi- 
culties, from  their  ver}^  nature,  vl^gA  frequent  rather  tha.n  prolonged 
attention.  Spelling  is  a  memory  exercise,  so  that  there  must  be 
repetition,  concentration,  and  interest,  for  without  these  memory 
is  weak.  To  make  a  spelling  lesson  interesting  requires  some 
skill  and  preparation.  Furthermore,  the  class  should  thoroughly 
understand  the  piece  ;  hence,  where  necessary,  words  should  be 
explained.  The  following  fragment  might  be  taken  as  an  ex- 
ample:— 

H.  Preparation  for  Class. 

A.  Subject  Matter. — "  The  watery  dykes  display  luxuriant 
verdure ;  bulrushes  and  waterflags  have  attained  their  freshness ; 
willows  are  rich  with  foliage  in  sylvan  nooks  ;  agreeably  hidden  in 
a  leafy  arbour  you  may  catch  glimpses  of  the  retiring  denizens  of 
the  more  secluded  labyrinths  of  the  forests"  (1883). 

1.  Have  the  piece  read  simultaneously.,  and  then  by  several  scholars  indi- 

vidually, either  from  the  B.  B.  or  books. 

2.  Underline  the  difficult  words  after  having  written  the  piece  on  the  B.  B. 

The  piece  should  have  been,  previous  to  the  lesson,  already  written  on 
the  B.B. 

3.  Now  group  the  words  as  far  as  possible,  and  deal  with  them  both  as  to 

spelling  and  meaning  seriatim. 

B.  "Words. 

1.  Watery,  agreeably,  leafy.      Note  the  y  sound  in  each  word,  -y,  -ly,  -y. 

Compare  with  -ie,  -ey,  -e£,  -ea,  -i  (foliage).  Explain  the  words,  and 
then  have  them  learnt. 

2.  Luxuriant,  bulrushes,  secluded.      Call  attention  to  the  different  sounds 

of  the  -11.  Explain  words,  and  have  them  learnt.  Previously  a  speci- 
men or  picture  of  a  bulrush  might  have  been  shown.  Bui  (syllable) 
should  be  compared  with  bull  (a  complete  word).  Se  might  be  com- 
pared with  sea,  see,  -cci. 

3.  Sylvan,  dykes,  labyrinth.     Note  the  y  sound  again,  and  contrast  with 

I.  Explain  the  words,  and  have  them  learnt.  Sketch  or  show  a 
picture  of  a  dyke.  Derivations  may  be  given  in  many  cases  to  an 
advanced  class,  especially  if  they  throw  any  light  upon  the  history  of 
the  words  and  their  changes  of  meanings. 

4.  Attained.     Compa?-e  pain,  gain,  Cain,  lain,  drain,  stain,  etc. 

Contrast  mane,  pane,  rein,  reign,  deign,  bane,  etc. 

5.  Denizens.      A  phonetic   word.      Explain   the   meaning,   and   have   the 

spelling  learnt.  '^ 

6.  The  words  might  now  be  rapidly  recapitulated  in  their  spelling,  and  the 

class  will  then  be  ready  for  the  dictation  or  reading. 

m.  liower  Classes. — With  younger  children  the  method 
pursued  should  be  somewhat  different.  Take  the  following  piece 
for  children  in  the  Second  Standard:  — 

A.  Subject  Matter.  — "  The  tiger's  tongue  is  so  rough  that  if  it 
were  to  lick  your  hand  it  would  cause  blcgd  to  flow  }  its  colour  js  a 


i88 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


light  tawny  brown  with  beautiful  black  stripes ;  its  feet  are  cushioned, 
and  it  has  whiskers  to  help  it  feel  its  way"  (1880). 

B.  Words. 

1 .  Tiger's.       Here  the  apostrophe  is  the  difificulty.     Show  that  it  denotes 

possession;  convert  to  "the  tongue  of  the  tiger'';  note  that  it  is 
singular,  and  contrast  with  the  phiral  form  (tigers'). 

2.  Tongue.     The  letters  ue  are  silent  ;  the  0  has  a  u  sound,  hence  the  word 

is  pronounced  hin^.      Compare  with  rung,  sung,  hung,  bung,  dun^. 

3.  Rough.       The   most   tiresome   syllable   in  the  English   language.      See 

"  Ways  of  Teaching  Spelling  ". 

4.  Would.     Compare  with  could  and  should — silent  /;    and  contrast  with 

wood,  hood,  good. 

5.  Blood.     The  -00  has  the  sound  oi  a  {=  bliid).     Contrast  with  hood,  wood, 

good ;  and  compare  with  mud,  stud,  spud. 

6.  Flow  and  brown.    Note  the  difference  of  the  -ow  sound  in  the  two  words. 

Compare  flow  with  know,  sow,  slow,  throw,  etc. ,  and  brown  with  cow, 
row,  now. 

7.  Colour.     Silent  Ji.     Compare  with  pai'lour,  governour,  labour ;   explain 

that  these  words  are  now  sometimes  spelt  without  the  u,  as  in  color, 
labor. 

8.  Tawny.      Compare  tawn-y  with  lawn,  pawn,  dawn,  and  contrast  with 

to?'fi,  corn,  morn,  ioY-lor?i. 

9.  Beautiful.     Explain  beau,  and  have  it  spelled.       Point  out  the  difference 

in  spelling  hetween/ull  (word)  and/«/  (suffix). 

10.  Cushioned.    Its  length,  strangeness,  the  i,  and  the  pronunciation  would 

constitute  its  difficulties  here.  The  first  part  of  the  word  could  be 
compared  with  push,  and  contrasted  with  lush  and  msh.  But  the 
meaning  having  been  given,  repetition  and  writing  will  be  the  best 
means  of  learning  this  word. 

11.  Whiskers.     The  O.  E.  wh  {hw)  is  the  difficulty  here  probably.      The 

regular  observance  of  the  proper  pronunciation  of  who,  which,  what, 
when,  where,  and  why  would  make  this  difficulty  easy. 

12.  Finally  the  words  should  be  written  on  the  B.  B.  ;    the  class  should  be 

allowed  to  learn  them,  and  subsequently  they  should  be  dictated  in  the 
piece  of  composition  to  which  they  belong.  The  errors  (if  any)  should 
then  be  dealt  with  and  learned. 

The  Classification  of  Difficult  Words. 

The  Teachers'  Monthly  in  the  November  number  of  1893  con- 
tained the  following  list  of  200  words  (which  were  adjudged  the 
best  of  a  number  of  lists  submitted)  as  being  typical  of  the  errors 
that  are  most  likely  to  occur  in  the  dictation  exercises  of  Standard 
III.  The  list  was  furnished  by  Mr.  Mitchell,  Schoolhouse,  Ferry- 
side,  Carmarthenshire,  and  the  classification  is  a  very  good  one. 

I.  Tendency  to  o///// letters. 


beginning 

beawtiful 

wool/en 

address 

shep/zerd 

safety 

king-dom 

slip/>ery 

compel/ed 

agreeable 

success 

swimming 

bigg^est 

hottest 

except 

carnage 

ascend 

general/y 

op/)osite 

immediate 

maryiage 

descend 

stretching 

possess 

whiteness 

travel/er 

disap/)oint 

ioiirih 

tem/Jtation 

quarrel/ing 

account 

government 

forgetting 

likeness 

forgiveness 

dif/icult 

addition 

thinner 

safely 

redder 

convenient 

occasion 

daisies 

particular 

occurred 

pleasant 

useful 

surprised 

accustom 

sup/jose 

af/ord 

jealous 

real/y 

getfing 

dgssert 

SPELLING 

II.  Tendency  to  insert  letters  not  required 

. 

burOied 

untilO 

tigOress 

wel()come 

lin()en 

wis()dom 

woodQen 

al()most 

pas()time 

necOessary 

subOtraction 

hund()reds 

umb()rella() 

grieOvous 

deliOver 

quarrel()some 

obligOing 

imOage 

perOil 

fulOfilO 

welOfare 

mis()taken 

imOagine 

tres()pass 

skilOfuK) 

al()ways 

travelO 

exOercise 

shin()ing 

preOsently 

drown()ed 

tru()ly 

al()ready 

bal()ance 

us()ing 

III.  Tendency  to  mistake  vowels. 

b»smess 

grammar 

separate 

divide 

pMrsue 

governor 

cotton 

stand"ard 

visible 

si/rface 

pwrchase 

doctor 

sj'stem 

scholar 

persuade 

sensfble 

basm 

leisure 

destroy 

figures 

sailor 

sugar 

manners 

different 

regular 

lY.  Tendency  to  mistalie 

coiisoiiatits. 

ne/)/tew 

medicine 

clof/zes 

picture 

(  pro/it 
j  pro/)Aet 

monarch 

duc/zess 

conceal 

expense 

anc/ior 

accident 

grocer 

/)/iysic 

J  practise 

certainly 

accept 

chimney 

razor 

(  practice 

Y.  Tendency  to  reverse  order  (ei,  ie,  oi). 

beheve 

pieces 

receive 

violent 

mischief 

relieve 

siege 

conceive 

violet 

grief 

fiery 

niece 

seize 

thieves 

friendship 

series 

YI.  Silent  letters. 

knowledge 

neitj-Zzbour 

/jnitting 

cu/)  board 

solemn 

plou^/iing 
islet 

unzi'holesome 

scenery 

knocking 

autumn 

climbing 

rouj^/ily 

doubtfully 

column 

foreiirn 

ansa^er 

wroug/tt 

kiln 

tombstone 

indebted 

sovercig^n 

naug^/ity 

althoug-Zi 

doug-fe 

YII.  Miscellaneous. 

J  current 
}  currant 

(  course 
\  coarse 

[  whether 
\  weather 
(  wether 

r  rowed 
-^rode 
vroad 

advise 

advice 

fatigue 

view 

error 

plateau 

colonel 

scythe 

stomach 

patience 

tight 

wreck 

desOert 

valleys 

i8g 


Rules  for  Spelling. 

If  the  teacher  should  decide  to  give  formal  spelling  lessons  in 
school,  or  to  supply  lists  of  words  for  home  work,  he  might  make 
use  of  the  rules  of  spelling  which  have  been  ably  formed  by  Pro- 
fessor Meiklejohn  in  his  new  spelling  book.  In  such  cases  the 
rule  should  first  be  learned  inductively.  Plenty  of  examples  should 
be  given,  and  from  these  the  rule  should  be  discovered  and  given. 
Then  the  lists  of  words  might  be  committed  to  memory.  But 
there  are  two  primary  objections  to  such  lessons.  Spelling  is 
usually  learned  as  a  preparation  for  some  other  lesson,  and  the 
choice  of  words  will  necessarily  be  limited  by  the  subject  matter 
of  that  lesson.  This  would  necessitate  the  introduction  of  a 
number  of  strange  (to  the  lesson)  words  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
covering the  rule,  or  the  rules  will  only  be  capable  of  partial 
application  ;  and,  secondly,  the  number  of  exceptions  is  so  large 
as  to  make  the  total  result  sometimes  confusing.     Perhaps  the 


igo  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

best  way  to  solve  the  difficulty  would  be  to  have  a  number  of 
formal  spelling  lessons,  and  then  in  such  cases  as  preparation  for 
dictation,  or  in  the  correction  of  spelling  errors,  each  case  could 
be  brought  under  its  own  rule  at  once.  That  is,  for  the  correction 
of  errors,  the  rule  should  be  applied  deductively.  One  or  two 
rules  are  given  here  as  types,  but  the  student  could  form  others 
for  himself,  or  he  could  get  a  copy,  of  the  book  referred  to,  where 
he  will  find  all  that  he  wants. 

1.  When  the  vowels  ei  and  te  have  the  sound  of  ee,  ei  follows  c,  but  ie  all 

other  consonants. 
When  e  and  i,  or  i  and  e  are  sounded  like  the  e  in  me. 
After  all  consonants  but  c  the  i  must  go  before  the  e. 

Exceptions :  financier ,  plebeian,  seize,  tueird. 

If  the  diphthong  has  any  other  sound  than  ee,  the  order  of  the  letters  is 
always  ei. 

2.  A  final  y  is  changed  into  i  when  a  syllable  is  added,  unless — 

(a)  The  affix  begins  with  i,  as  ing,  ish,  ist. 

(b)  The  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel. 

Exceptions:  dryness,  shyness,  etc.  ;  s/iyiy,  daily,  gaiety,  gaily,  laid,  plaid, 
said,  slain. 

3.  The  final  ^  of  a   word  is  retained  when  a  syllable  beginning  with  a 

consonant  is  added,  but  dropped  if  the  affix  begins  with  a  vowel. 
Exceptions:  abridgment,  acknowledgment,  argument,  awful,  duly, judgment, 
lodgtnent,  truly,  wholly,  woful,  etc. 

Transcription. 
I.  Its  Functions. 

1.  To  Teach  Spelling.     This  is  its  primary  function,  and  it  does  it  in  a 

natural  way — through  the  eye.  If  followed  by  spelling  orally  and  dic- 
tation, the  words  become  permanently  fixed. 

2.  Practice  in  Writing.     Care  and  attention  can  be  given  to  the  writing, 

although  this  is  a  subordinate  object  of  the  lesson. 

3.  Style.     If  the  pieces  are  well  chosen,  some  of  the  pupils  may  be  gradually 

leavened  with  the  style  of  the  author;  but  it  is  feared  that,  as  a  rule, 
the  exercise  becomes  too  mechanical  to  have  much  influence  of  that 
kind. 

4.  Grammar.     The  frequent  transcription  of  correct  forms  of  speech  tends 

to  the  use  of  correct  language,  and  this,  too,  in  an  easy  way. 

5.  Punctuation.      What   has   been   said   of  grammar   is   equally   true   of 

punctuation,  which  is  always  a  difficulty  with  scholars. 

6.  Discipline.     It  engenders  habits  of  carefulness,  for  it  demands  minute 

inspection  for  accuracy,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  an  easy  exercise. 
Furthermore,  the  sentiments  expressed  in  the  subject  matter,  and 
slowly  transcribed  by  the  pupil,  have  better  opportunities  (from  their 
brevity,  and  the  comparative  leisure  offered  for  their  comprehension)  of 
fixing  themselves  in  the  minds  of  the  scholars. 

n.  Its  Conditions. 

1.  The  subject  matter  must  be  understood  by  the  children. 

2.  All  errors  must  be  carefully  corrected,  and  the  corrections  learned. 

3.  The  time  for  the  lesson  will  vary.     In  the  lower  classes  it  should  follow  a 

reading  lesson,  in  which  the  subject  matter  has  been  read  and  explained. 
In  the  higher  classes  it  can  be  used  with  more  freedom.  Its  best  use 
will  be  as  a  preparation  for  dictation. 


SPELLING.  191 

m.  Subject  Matter. — In  the  early  stages,  the  pieces  will  be 
chosen  principally  with  a  view  to  the  maximum  advantages  in 
spelling,  and  with  a  due  regard  to  the  handwriting.  But  when  the 
handwriting  is  well  formed,  the  teacher  can  then  select  passages 
without  any  particular  attention  to  the  writing.  ,  He  can  then 
concentrate  the  attention  on  the — 

1.  Difficulties  of  orthography  or  derivation  ;  or  upon  the 

2.  Difficulties  of  style  ;  or  upon  the 

3.  Difficulties  of  grammar. 

In  such  cases  the  lesson  will  be  something  more  than  a  mere  aid 
to  spelling;  it  will  become  an  instrument  of  culture,  by  elevating 
the  style  or  the  thoughts,  or  by  enriching  the  expressive  vocabu- 
lary of  the  pupils. 

Dictation. 

I.  Its  Function. — This  is  one  of  the  methods  of  teaching 
spelling  and  composition.  It  teaches  spelling  indirectly  and 
composition  directly.  The  chief  aim  of  a  dictation  lesson  should 
be  to  prevent,  not  to  correct  mistakes.  For  this  reason  it  is 
necessary  that  it  should  usually  be  preceded  by  some  kind  of 
preparation,  so  that  its  real  office  becomes  a  testing  rather  than 
a  teaching  one. 

H.  Subject  Matter. 

1.  Suitability.     The  subject  matter  must  be  suitable  to  the  capacities  of 

the  children.  The  thoughts  and  language  should  be  within  the  grasp 
of  their  comprehension,  and  the  limit  should  be  kept  within  a  little 
explanation  from  the  teacher. 

2.  Preparation.     It  must  be  prepared  in  most  cases.      For  young  pupils  to 

write  unseens  is  to  learn  to  write  mistakes.  Unseens  are  tests  only, 
and  our  difficult  system  of  spelling  makes  preparation  absolutely 
essential. 

3.  Quantity.      Long  pieces   may  be  a  test    of  physical  endurance,  or   of 

juvenile  hard-headedness ;  but  they  can  scarcely  claim  to  be  safe  tests 
either  of  knowledge  or  intelligence,  for  the  strain  is  too  great  for  some 
pupils.  It  is  not  the  quantity  dictated,  but  the  amount  corrected 
which  has  the  educational  value.  The  amount  will  grow  with  the 
growing  power  of  retaining  phrases  in  the  mind. 

4.  Teacher.      The  teacher  must  dictate  the  words  once  only.      The  dis- 

ciplinary effect  of  this  is  great.  He  should  previously  read  the  passage 
through  in  a  clear,  deliberate  voice,  especially  if  the  piece  is  a  test. 
But  he  nmst  never  forget  that  distinct  speech  is  no  substitute  for  pre- 
paration. 

m.  Correction. — The  methods  of  correction   will   generally 

depend  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  staff.     There  are  four 

principal  methods  in  use. 

I.  Individual  Correction  by  the  Teacher. —  This  is  the  best  method,  but 
certain  objections  are  alleged  against  it. 


192  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

{a)  It  is  too  expensive  in  time  to  be  done  in  school  hours. 
{d)  It  is  unjust  to  expect  a  teacher  to  do  it  ou^  of  school  hours  as  a  rule. 
Such  methods  of  correction  should  be  the  exception  and  not  the  rule. 
^2.  Monitorial   Correction. — In   some    schools    monitors    or    curators    are 
selected  to  examine  the  work.     It  is  an  office  of  trust  and  responsibility,  and 
so  becomes  an  aid  to  diligence  and  progress.     But  this,  like  all  other  methods, 
is  open  to  objections. 

{a)  It  is  unfair  to  the  monitors.  It  is  a  wearying  task  ;  and  unless  special 
arrangements  are  made  for  the  adequate  instruction  of  the  monitors, 
they  lose  their  own  lessons. 

[b]  If  the  monitors  are  pafd  this  objection  disappears,  but  even  then  there  is 

a  very  poor  return  for  so  much  fagging  work. 

[c]  It  involves  implicit  trust  in  the  monitors.     The  monitor,  remembering 

his  tender  years,  may  prove  unreliable  from  some  cause  or  other. 

[d]  The  monitor,  from  fatigue,  or  indifference,  or  a  weak  sense  of  duty,  may 

correct  carelessly. 

{e)  Monitorial  correction  may  breed  ill-feeling  in  the  class. 

3.  Inter-Correction. — This  is  the  method  usually  adopted.  The  children 
change  slates  or  books,  and  correct  each  other's  work.  They  are  thus  revising 
the  lesson  and  correcting  at  the  same  time.  •  The  method  is  open  to  serious 
objections. 

[a]  It  tends  to  collusion  between  scholars  to  mark  work  dishonestly. 

\b)  It  gives  opportunities  for  the  display  of  petty  spite,  malice,  revenge,  etc. , 
in  the  incorrect  marking  of  exercises. 

[c]  It  leads  to  disputes,  bad  feeling,  and  disorder.  Children  are  prepared 
to  dispute  the  marking  of  a  fellow-pupil. 

\.  Self-Correction. — This  method  allows  the  class  to  correct  their  own 
work  at  the  dictation  of  the  teacher.  It  is  the  same  process  of  correction  as 
3,  with  the  exception  that  each  pupil  marks  his  own  books.  Its  objections 
are  :— 

[a]  It  places  too  great  a  strain  upon  the  moral  strength  of  some  of  the 

pupils.  There  are  more  moral  weaklings  than  either  physical  or  mental 
ones,  and  it  is  unwise  and  unjust  to  set  many  a  moral  task  beyond 
their  moral  strength. 

[b]  The  primary  object  of  correction  is  usually  defeated — the  throzuing  up 

boldly  of  all  errors.  There  is  too  much  self-tenderness  with  this 
method.  Errors  are  either  passed  over,  or  else  marked  so  faintly  or  so 
minutely  as  almost  to  escape  attention. 

rv.  The  Moral  Side  of  Correction. — All  correction  should  be 
done  with  the  greatest  care,  and  in  a  reasonable  period  of  time. 
Books  should  rarely  be  kept  more  than  a  day  or  two.  The  care- 
less correction  of  errors  produces  a  whole  crop  of  evils,  some 
of  the  chief  of  which  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  A  habit  of  carelessness  is  bred  in  the  pupils.      They  become  untidy  in 

their  methods,  their  lessons,  and  sometimes  in  their  habits  generally. 

2.  Deceit  is  engendered.    The  pupil  is  induced  to  cheat,  because  there  is  less 

probability  of  detection. 

3.  It  would  cause  laziness  and  probably  indifference,  for  where  a  lack  of 

care,  and  by  inference  a  lack  of  interest  are  shown  by  the  teacher,  the 
infection  will  soon  spread  to  the  scholars  and  develop  into  laziness. 

4.  It  increases  the  difficulties  of  school  work.      The  pupil  will  cease  to 

respect  the  teacher,  and  so  discipline  and  teaching  will  become  harder. 
This  may  lead  to  increased  severity  or  increased  carelessness  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher. 

5.  The  tone  of  the  school  will  deteriorate.     A  careless  teacher  puts  himself 

on  an  inclined  plane,    and  the  rate  of  his  descent  increases.     In- 


SPELLING.  193 

difference,  untidiness,  laziness,  cheating,  untruthfulness,  loss  of 
respect,  all  may  arise  from  the  careless  correction  of  work. 

6.  It  is  unjust  to  the   pupils.       Each  error  is  like  a  signpost  guiding  the 

direction  of  the  teaching,  for  errors  indicate  the  individual  wants  of  the 
pupils.  If  these  errors  are  carelessly  treated,  the  child  is  deprived  of 
that  attention  and  training  which  it  has  a  right  to  expect,  and  which  it 
is  just  as  rightly  expected  the  teacher  will  give  him. 

7.  It  is  wasteful,  for  much  time,  interest,  power,  and  zeal  are  lost. 

NOTES  ON  A  DICTATION  I.ESSON. 

{Class —     Standard  III.     Time  —  ^o  minutes.) 
I.  Class  Arrangement. 

1.  Arrange  the  class  as  widely  apart  as  the  desk  space  will  allow. 

2.  See  that  the  ink  wells  have  been  properly  filled. 

3.  Have  the  dictation  books  and  pens  given  out. 

This  is  best  done  by  placing  the  required  number  at  the  end  of  each  row, 
and  by  having  them  passed  upon  the  sign  or  command  of  the  teacher. 

Dictation  hooks  should  be  used — not  pieces  of  paper.  The  book  then 
becomes  a  register  of  progress  both  in  handwriting  and  spelling.  When  filled, 
these  books  should  be  preserved  by  the  teacher,  for  they  allow  him  to  collect 
and  classify  all  the  commonest  spelling  errors  of  the  class,  and  so  to  arrange 
his  future  lessons  to  meet  these  recurring  errors.  He  should  not  burden  his 
lessons  with  words  of  rare  occurrence. 

H.  Class  Preparation. 

1.  The  piece  may  have  been  previously  prepared  either — 
[a]  In  the  Reading  Lesson. 

\b)  In  the  Transcription  Lesson. 
[c]  In  a  Spelling  Lesson. 
\d)  In  Special  Class  Work. 
\e)  In  Composition  Exercises. 
{/)  In  Home  Work. 

2.  If  not,  write  the  following  words  on  the  B.B.,  and  have  them  learnt  :— 
Curfew,    Tolls,   Knell,  Lowing,   Lea,   Ploughman,    Weary,    Glimmering, 

Landscape,  Drowsy,  etc. 
Have  them  spelt  simultaneously  and  then  individually. 

3.  Or  have  the  piece  previously  written  upon  the  B.B.,  underline  the  most 

difficult  words,  and  turn  the  B.B.  to  the  class  so  that  the  words  may 
be  learned.  This  is  a  good  method,  as  the  teacher  cannot  successfully 
anticipate  the  difficulties  of  every  bioy,  whilst  this  method  allows  each 
boy  to  run  through  and  select  his  own  difficulties, 

m.  Dictation. —Read  the  passage  through  slowly  and  dis- 
tinctly onu ;  then  dictate  in  phrases,  samples  of  which  are  marked 

below : — 

The  curfew  tolls  |  the  knell  of  parting  day  ;  | 
The  lowing  herd  |  winds  slowly  |  o'er  the  lea  ;  | 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  |  his  weary  way,  | 
And  leaves  the  world  |  to  darkness  and  to  me.  | 

IV.  Correction. 

I.  Change  books ;  vary  the  method,  sometimes  with  the  boy  in  fronti 
sometimes  with  the  one  behind  ;  to  the  right,  to  the  left ;  the  end  boy 
on  the  right  hand  of  each  row  to  pass  his  book  to  the  left-hand  boy 
of  his  row,  and  then  return  to  his  place.  Then  pass  the  rest  of  the 
books  one  place  to  the  right. 

13 


194  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

2.  [a]  Spell  the  passage  through  distinctly,  and  have  each  misspelt  word 

mai'ked  through  in  each  book.  The  total  number  of  errors  should  be 
put  at  the  end  of  the  exercise.  If  the  word  is  underlined  it  allows 
more  chance  of  alteration  and  consequent  dispute.  Marking  through 
prevents  this. 

[b)  Or  let  them  correct  from  their  reading  books,  if  the  piece  be  taken  from 
a  reading  book.  In  this  case  the  right  number  of  books  should  have 
been  previously  placed  at  the  end  of  each  row,  and  when  the  books 
have  been  exchanged,  upon  the  sign  of  the  teacher  the  books  should 
be  passed  and  the  page  announced. 

{c)  Or  it  can  be  corrected  by  having  the  piece  previously  written  on  the  B.B. 
Everything  is  then  ready  (see  No.  3  under  Class  Preparation). 

3.  Books  to  be  changed  back  to  their  owners. 

4.  Now  write  the  most  difficult  words  on  the  B.B.     Methods  {b)  and  [c]  avoid 

this  waste  of  time. 

5.  Have    the    errors    carefully   written   under   the   exercise,    learned,    and 

repeated  to  the  teacher,  who  is  moving  quietly  about  the  class  hearing 
mistakes  spelt,  inspecting  books,  and  marking  the  exercises.  If  the 
class  is  very  large,  one  or  two  of  the  best  pupils  might  be  called  upon 
to  assist. 

V.  Conclusion. — The  dictation  books  and  reading  books  (if 
used)  to  be  passed  to  the  ends  of  the  desks;  the  pens  also  should 
be  passed  unless  required  for  the  next  lesson. 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Name  eight  words  in  the  spelling  of  which  young  children  often  make  mistakes, 
and  explain  by  what  sort  of  exercises  such  mistakes  may  be  corrected  or  avoided. 

2.— Take  the  following  words,  and  give  a  list  of  others  which  might  be  grouped  with 
them  for  a  spelling  lesson :  rough,  should,  which,  many,  taught. 

3.— What  preparatory  observations  as  to  difficulties  of  spelling  should  be  made  before 
proceeding  to  write  from  dictation  the  following  passage  ? — 

"  The  watery  dykes  display  luxuriant  verdure ;  bulrushes  and  water-flags  have 

attained   their  freshness ;    willows  are  rich  with  foliage  in  sylvan  nooks ; 

agreeably  hidden  in  a  leafy  arbour  you  may  catch  glimpses  of  the  retiring 

denizens  of  the  more  secluded  labyrinths  of  the  forests  ". 

4.— Distinguish  the  uses  of  dictation  and  transcription  lessons  for  children  lately 

transferred  from  an  infant  school. 

5. — Show  that  some  words  would  present  special  difficulties  of  spelling  in  the  follow- 
ing passage,  dictated  to  children  who  had  not  passed  the  Second  Standard  :— 

"  The  tiger's  tongue  is  so  rough,  that  if  it  were  to  lick  your  hand  it  would  cause 
blood  to  flow ;  its  colour  is  a  light  tawny  brown,  with  beautiful  black  stripes ; 
its  feet  are  cushioned,  and  it  has  whiskers  to  help  it  feel  its  way". 
6.— Before  giving  out  a  passage  for  dictation,  what  preparation  is  needed  to  prevent 
possible  misspellings  ? 

7.— Describe  the  various  methods  used  to  teach  spelling  in  your  school.  Did  you 
rely  chiefly  on  the  eye  or  on  the  ear  in  teaching  spelling  ? 

8.— Give  some  (not  more  than  six)  of  the  commonest  misspeUings  of  children  in  the 
First  Standard,  and  account  for  each  natural  confusion  in  spelling.  How  did  you  correct 
written  exercises  in  spelling? 

9. — How  have  you  been  accustomed  to  give  a  dictation  lesson  ?  How  was  the  exer- 
cise corrected  ?     What  expedients  were  adopted  to  prevent  copying  ? 

10.— How  would  you  conduct  a  dictation  lesson  to  the  Third  Standard  ?  How  should 
the  mistakes  be  corrected  ? 

II. — Mention  any  twelve  words,  the  spelling  of  which  presents  special  difficulty  to 
young  learners ;  and  say  by  what  sort  of  exercises  you  can  best  help  such  learners  to 
spell  them  correctly. 

12. — What  points  would  you  chiefly  keep  in  view  in  giving  a  dictation  lesson  ? 
13- — Name  some  of  the  commonest  faults  of  young  assistants  in  teaching  spelling. 
How  much  of  a  spelling  exercise  should  be  oral,  and  how  much  should  be  written  ? 


195 


CHAPTER  XI. 

WRITING. 

Writing  is  important  and  valuable  both  for  its  practical  worth 
and  its  aid  to  training.  It  is  a  recognised  and  essential  means  of 
communication  in  private  life.  It  bridges  distance,  and  brings 
the  absent  within  the  range  of  conversation.  Its  business  im- 
portance is  too  obvious  to  need  comment.  Professionally  it  may 
generally  be  taken  to  indicate  the  character  of  the  school  and  its 
work.  It  appeals  easily  and  readily  to  the  parents  as  an  index  of 
the  progress  of  their  children  ;  a  just  pride  is  bred,  which  reacts 
favourably  on  the  school  reputation,  and  consequently  upon  its 
attendance.  Nor  is  its  literary  value  less.  Before  the  invention 
of  printing  all  books  were  written,  and  they  still  have  to  be 
written,  although  they  are  given  to  the  world  in  a  printed  form. 
But  the  literature  of  a  country  is  dependent  upon  writing  for  its 
existence  and  growth.  Shorthand  is  a  form  of  writing  with  a  new 
set  of  symbols.  Nevertheless,  it  is  writing,  and  a  very  important 
development  of  it  too.  Its  importance  is  recognised  by  the  Code 
and  our  schools  in  a  practical  way ;  and  for  journalism,  office 
work,  and  secretarial  duties,  it  is  now  almost  absolutely  essential. 
Nor  are  the  training  advantages  of  writing  to  be  overlooked. 
Without  being  what  is  understood  as  an  intellectual  subject,  it 
nevertheless  affords  some  training,  both  mental  and  moral.  The 
careful  and  successful  writer  is  taught  to  observe  form  and  pro- 
portion closely,  to  note  those  small  details  which  give  quality  and 
style  to  the  writing.  The  memory  is  exercised  in  the  earlier  stages 
in  remembering  the  items  observed,  although  little  memory 
training  can  be  claimed  for  what  is  almost  purely  an  imitative 
exercise.  There  is  more  training  for  the  attention  if  the  lessons 
are  properly  supervised  and  carried  on,  whilst  the  judgment  is 
cultivated  by  the  study  of  spacing,  slopes,  and  proportion.  The 
artistic   value  of  writing   must    also    be    recognised,    for   it   is    a 


ige  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

correlative  to  drawing,  and  it  develops  the  sense  of  beaut}^  and 
proportion. 

Writing  is  not  without  its  moral  advantages.  It  induces 
habits  of  neatness,  care,  and  accuracy,  which  help  to  leaven  the 
whole  character. 

Position  for  Writing. — As  writing  is  a  mechanical  acquire- 
ment very  largely,  it  is  essential  that  the  physical  side  of  the 
subject  should  receive  proper  attention,  so  that  no  habits  in- 
jurious to  health  may  be  formed.  This  will  include  the  considera- 
tion of  such  things  as  the  position  of  the  body,  the  place  of  the 
slate  or  paper,  light,  the  position  of  the  ink,  and  the  holding  of 
the  pen. 

1.  Body.— The  body  must  be  kept  in  an  easy  position,  upright,  and  not 
leaning  against  the  edge  of  the  desk,  but  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  it. 
There  should  be  no  leaning  either  one  way  or  the  other,  otherwise  the  weight  of 
the  body  will  not  be  evenly  distributed  on  the  seat.  The  pupil  should  not  be 
allowed  to  bend  over  the  work,  nor  to  rest  the  head  upon  the  left  hand.  (See 
notes  on  "  Desks  ".) 

2.  Slates,  etc. — The  slate,  copy-book,  or  paper  should  be  parallel  with  the 
desk,  but  placed  slightly  to  the  right,  so  that  the  handle  of  the  pen  should  point 
over  the  right  shoulder. 

3.  Light. — If  possible,  this  should  fall  from  the  left.     (See  notes  on  "  Light  ".) 
i.  Ink.  —This  should  be  placed  slightly  to  the  right,  so  as  not  to  necessitate 

a  change  of  position. 
5.  Holding  the  Pen. 

(a)  The  pen  will  be  held  between  the  first  two  fingers  on  the  one  side,  and 
the  thumb  on  the  other. 

(d)  The  two  fingers  and  the  thumb  should  all  be  bent — the  thumb  most  so. 
{c)  The  forefinger  should  rest  upon  the  top  of  the  pen. 

Id)  The  hand  should  rest  upon  the  last  two  fingers. 

(e)  The  pen  should  be  held  lightly,  and  should  point  towards  the  shoulder. 

Both  sides  should  be  equally  pressed,  but  not  clutched. 
(/)  The  pen  should  not  be  held  too  near  the  nib.     If  too  near,  the  action 

is  cramped,  the  writing  often  stiff,  and  the  work  more  often  dirty. 
{g')  The  arm  should  rest  on  the  desk  a  little  below  the  elbow. 
{/z)  The  hand  should  not  be  supported  by  the  wrist,  or  rapidity  and  quality 

will  suffer. 

MULHAUSER'S  METHOD. 

Mulhauser  belonged  to  Geneva,  and  he  prepared  his  system  of 
writing  at  the  request  of  the  French  Government.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  this  country  in  1840  by  the  Committee  of  Council  on 
Education.  He  lays  down  certain  essentials  for  good  writing, 
which  refer  to  the  seat,  the  body,  and  the  pen.  The  child  was  to 
be  well  seated,  with  its  body  in  a  healthy  position,  and  the  pen 
was  to  be  properly  held.  His  theory  was  that  writing  was  to  be 
an  instructive  as  well  as  an  imitative  art.  Experience  has  shown 
that  the  method,  despite  its  complexity,  is  a  good  one. 


WRITING.  197 

Principles  of  Construction. 

1.  The  elements  and  the  letters  themselves  were  to  be  taught  in  the  order 

of  their  simplicity. 

2.  The  pupil  was  to  be  furnished  with  a  standard  by  which  he  could  deter- 

mine for  himself  the  height,  the  breadth,  the  inclination,  and  the  points 
of  combination  of  the  letters.  This  was  to  be  done  by  his  celebrated 
system  of  rhomboids. 

3.  Such  instruction  was  to  be  given  in  the  course  of  the  lesson  as  would  make 

the  exercise  an  intelligent  and  interesting  one. 

Analysis  of  Movements. -Analysis  is  the  teacher's  work, 
synthesis  the  child's.  Writing  is  effected  by  movements  of 
the  hand  and  arm.  Analysing  these  movements,  he  found  there 
were  four  of  the  hand— up,  down,  right,  and  left ;  and  that  the 
movement  of  the  arm  was  lateral  to  the  right,  and  that  by  it  the 
symmetry,  uniformity,  and  parallelism  of  the  writing  was  to  be 
maintained. 

Analysis  of  Letters. — These  are  resolved  into  elements. 
Some  say  that  there  are  but  four ;  e.g.  : — 

{a)  The  right  line  down  and  up,  as     /    / ; 

{l>)  The  curve  down  and  up,  as       I       |  ; 

[c)  The  loop  down  and  up,  as     / 

(d)  The  crotchet,  as  in  the     ^. 

But  perhaps  it  will  be  better  to  divide  them  into  eight 
elements. 

((/)  Right  Line.     This  has  four  different  heights,  and  it  is  the  tirst  principal 
element. 

(i)  One  height,  as  in  i. 

(2)  One  and  a  half  heights,  as  in  t. 

{3)  Two  heights,  as  in  h. 

(4)  Two  and  a  half  heights,  as  in  p. 

{d)  Link.     This  is  the  first  connective  element.      It  forms  the  latter  part  of 

the  letters  i,  e,  t,  m,  n,  etc. 
{(•)  Hook.     This  is  the  second  connective  element.     It  forms  the  first  part  of 

the  letters  n,  tn,  v,  y,  etc. 
{if)  Curve.     This  is  the  second  principal  element.      It  is  found  in  the  letters 

(>,  c,  and  I', 
{e)  Loop.     This  is  the  third  principal  element ;  found  in  c,  \\  ;<. 
(/)  Crotchet.     This  is  the  fourth  principal  element,  as  in  the  latter  parts  of 

r,  V,  b,  70. 
{g-)  Bar.     As  in  the  /. 
{/i)  Dot.     As  in  the  i  and  they. 


igS 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Method  of  Teaching. 

1.   Mechanical  Aids. — As  one  aim  of  the  system  is  to  enable  the  pupil  to 
determine  the  proportion,  inclination,  and  joinings  of  the  elements  and 
letters  by  a  definite  standard,  he  is  furnished  with  books  ruled  into 
spaces  the  width  and  half  the  height  of  the  letter  O. 
(a)  Terms. 

^  height  =  the  vertical  distance  between  two  lines. 
One  space  —  the  lateral  , ,  , ,  , , 

One  height  =  the  vertical         , ,  , ,  , , 

(d)  Letter  Spacing. 

1  space    =  the  width  of  e,  c,  q,  etc. 

2  spaces  =       ,,         ,,      u,  a,  h,  p. 


/^I 

/"*/     / . 

1  f  J  ^ 

'I  \ 

(yl 

L-J  [^ 

V  lylyt 

Jyk 

1      1      1      1      1     1/    1      1      1     1     1 

1      1      1      1      1      1/    1      1     1     1     1 

3  spaces  =  the  width  of  n. 

4  spaces  =       , ,         ,,      m 

4  lines  =  i^  heights. 

5  lines  =  2        ,, 


imwt 


fffJmfi 


But  when  n  and  m  come  together,  they  will  be  found  to  occupy  not  7  but 
6  spaces.  That  is,  there  is  a  difficulty  ivhen  a  hook  follows  a  link. 
The  two  occupy  a  space  and  a  half— not  two  spaces,  as  might  be 


supposed.     Similarly,  a  half  space  is  lost  when  c  or  e  is  followed  by 
hook. 


WRITING. 


199 


2.  Instruction  and  Practice. 

(a)  The  teacher  writes  on  the  B.  B,  and  names  each  element. 

{d)  The  teacher  then  writes  letters  and  words  on  the  B.  B. ,  the  elements  of 

which  are  dictated  by  the  children. 
(6-)  Then  the  children  write  elements  and  letters  from  the  teacher's  dictation. 

3.  Classification. — Thoroughness  was  insisted  on.  No  child  was  allowed 
to  leave  anything  until  it  had  mastered  it.  The  course  consisted  in  giving 
elements,  then  letters,  then  words. 

{a)  Right  Line  Link  Class.  —The  first  lessons  should  be  confined  to  this  class, 
which  includes  the  elements  of  the  letters  /,  u,  I,  t. 


{b)  Hook  Class.— The  elements  involved  now  are  right  line  +  link  +  hook. 
This  will  embrace  the  letters  n,  m,  h,  p. 


{c)  The  Curve  Class.* — The  cuj've  is  next  introduced,  and  the  elements 

involved  are  right  line  +  link  +  hook  +  curve.     Any  letters  containing 

these  elements  only  can  now  be  introduced. 
[d)  The  Loop  Class. — The  loop  is  the  next  element.      The  elements  now 

involved  are  the  right  line  +  link  +  hook  +  curve  +  loop.     This  admits 

the  letters 7,^,  andj.     In  each  case  the  heights  and  spacings  of  the 

letters  should  be  noticed. 
{e)  The  Crotchet  Class.— The  crotchet  is  next  introduced.      The  elements 

now   are   right  line  +  link  +  hook  +  curve  4-  loop  4-  crotchet.       The 

letters  b,f,  r,  v,  w  can  now  be  introduced. 
(/)  The  Complex  Class.— The  letters  of  this  class  do  not  fall  readily  into 

any  of  the  preceding  classes,  and  they  have  little  in  common.     Each 

should  be  practised  until  its  shape  is  quite  familiar.     This  class  includes 

the  letters  k,  s,  and  2. 

4.  Criticism.— The  method  is  well  graded,  commencing  with 
the  simplest  elements  and  progressing  to  the  most  difficult  letters. 
The  rhomboids  are  a  great  aid  for  parallelism  of  slope,  and  they 
offer  some  assistance  in  spacing,  as  well  as  securing  uniformity 
and  proportion.  But  if  a  too  free  use  of  the  rhomboids  be  made 
they  become  a  hindrance.  They  are  always  more  or  less  confusing, 
and  often  discouraging.     The  method  is  uninteresting  in  its  earlier 

*  The  following  classes  are  illustrated  on  the  next  page. 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


stages,  just  when  interest  requires  to  be  strong.  The  child  is 
kept  making  strokes  and  pot  hooks  till  it  wearies  of  the  whole 
thing.  The  variation  of  rules  for  the  spacing  of  different  com- 
binations of  letters  is  very  perplexing  to  young  pupils,  and  the 
whole  method  generally  is  too  technical  for  speedy  progress. 
Nevertheless,  the  system  has  stood  the  test  of  experience,  and 
proved  itself  a  good  one,  and  up  to  the  present  no  better  system, 
on  the  whole,  has  yet  arisen  to  take  its  place.  The  Education 
Department  show  their  appreciation  of  it  by  frequently  setting 
questions  upon  it  in  their  examinations,  and  the  young  student  is 
advised  to  study  it  thoroughly  from  some  such  book  as  Cowham's 
Mtdhauser's  Manual  of  Writing. 


Questions  on  Mulhauser's  System. 

I.  Ai-range  the  following  words  in  order'  according  to  flic  dijju  id/y  nj  i^'nting 
they  present  to  beginners,  and  give  your  reasons:  man,  mat,  mamma,  mask, 
mast,  men,  meat,  mend,  mane,  most,  mind  (1877). 

Now,  to  answer  a  question  like  this  turn  to  Mulhauser's  classes.  Analyse 
the  words  here  given  into  their  elements,  noting  which  class  they  fall  into. 
Arrange  them  in  their  classes  on  this  basis,  and  that  will  bs  the  arrangement 
required.     Your  reasons  will  be  the  reasons  for  Mulhauser's  classes;  e.g.  : — 


WRITING.  20I 

man  ;  elements  involved  are  right  line,  link,  hook,  double  curve.    Classes  i, 

2,  and  3. 
mat;  ,,  ,,  right  line,  link,  bar,  double  curve.    Classes  i 

and  3. 
mamma;      ,,  ,,  right  line,  link,  hook,  double  curve.   Classes  i, 

2,  and  3. 
mask;  ,,  ,,  right   line,   link,   and   two    complex    letters. 

Classes  1,3,  and  6. 
men;  ,,  ,,  loop,  curve,  link,  hook,  right  line.    Classes  i, 

2,  3,  and  4. 
meat;  ,,  ,,  loop,  curve,  link,  double  curve,  right  line,  bar. 

Classes  1,  2,  3,  and  4. 
mend;  ,,  ,,  loop,   curve,   link,   hook,   right  line,   double 

curve.     Classes  i,  2,  3,  and  4. 
mane;  ,,  ,,  double  curve,   right   line,    link,    hook,  loop, 

curve.     Classes  i ,  2,3,  and  4. 
most;  ,,  ,,  double  curve,  J  crotchet,  complex,  right  line, 

link,  bar.     Classes  i,  3,  5,  and  6. 
mind  ;  ,,  ,,  right  line,  link,  hook,  double  curve.   Classes  i, 

2,  and  3. 
The  letter  m,  i.e.,  the  initial  tii,  has  not  been  considered  in  these  analyses,  as 
it  figures  in  every  word,  and  therefore  cannot  intluence  the  difficulty  of  one 
against  the  other.  Where  the  elements  are  the  same  the  length  of  the  word 
becomes  a  factor,  and  the  combinations  ;  e.g.,  the  eXexnenls  oi mind 3.nd  manttna 
are  the  same,  but  mind  is  considered  easier  than  mamma  because  it  is  shorter. 
Tested  in  this  way,  the  words  present  themselves  in  the  following  order  of 
difficulty  :  mat,  man,  mind,  mamma,  men,  meat,  mend,  mane,  most,  mask. 

2.  Show  clearly  the  elementary  component  parts  of  the  written  letteis.,  a,  h,g, 
m,  d  (1876). 

Turn  to  Mulhauser's  classes,  and  analyse  the  letters  into  their  elements, 
thus  :— 

a  =  double  curve,  right  line,  link  (0  /  J). 

h  =  right  line,  two  heights  (/),  hook  {9),  right  line  (/),  link  {J). 
%  ~  double  curve   (0),   right  line,  two  heights  down  (/),  loop   (J), 
h  link  (/). 
rhook  (9),  right  line  (/). 
m  =J        do.,  do. 

t       do.,  do.,     link  {J). 

d  =  double  curve  {0),  right  line,  two  heights  (/),  link  [J). 

Heights  of  Iietters. — The  heights  of  the  letters  should  be  com- 
mitted to  memory.  The  pupil  should  also  practise  himself  in 
spacing  the  letters  in  different  combinations,  e.g.,  cru,  mn. 

One  height  =  a,  c,  e,  i,  m,  n,  o,  r,  s,  u,  y,  w,  x. 

One  height  and  a  half  =  t. 

Two  heights  =  b,  d,  h,  k,  1,  q. 

Two  heights  and  a  half  ==  g,  j,  p,  y,  z. 

Three  heights  =  f. 

CIiASSIFICATTON  OF  CAFITAIi  LETTERS. 

Capital  letters  should  be  classified  accordinj;  to  their  similarity 
of  form,  and  should  be  taught  for  writing  in  the  groups  thus 
formed.  Any  system  of  ruling  by  which  the  forms  and  proportions 
of  letters  are   duly  shown,  and  which  produces  a  bold  and  legible 


202  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

style,  may  be  accounted  a  good  one.  But  whatever  system  of 
ruling  is  adopted,  generally  speaking,  each  capital  letter  should 
be  twice  the  height  of  a  small  letter,  and  this  is  true  of  all  letters 
except  J,  Y,  G  and  Z  ;  these  are  I  higher.  Mulhauser's  system 
does  not  deal  with  capitals. 

Group  I.  T/ie  common  element  is  the  down  stroke  of  the  I.  The  base  of  the 
letters  should  not  be  made  too  small,  as  they  then  look  top  heavy  and  inartistic. 
A  common  fault  is  to  make  the  left-hand  portions  of  the  /*,  B,  and  R  too  small. 


The  right-hand  loop  of  the  P  is  often  too  large,  whilst  the  up  curve  of  the  /  is 
often  written  as  a  down  curve.  The  T  is  the  easiest  letter,  and  should  be  taught 
first.     The  others  should  follow  in  this  order  :  F,  /,  S,  L,  P,  B,  R. 

Group  II.  The  common  element  is  the  down  stroke  with  the  hook  head. 
These  letters  are  difficult,  and  require  plenty  of  practice. 

Group  III.  The  common  element  here  is  the  upward  cu7-ve,  which  forms 
the  first  part  of  each  letter.  In  the  M  and  the  N'  the  teacher  must  see  that  the 
up  cu)-ves  are  parallel.  The  neglect  of  this  rule  causes  the  production  of  some 
very  distorted  looking  letters. 

Group  lY.  The  cm-ve  is  the  common  element  of  this  class.  The  letters 
will  require  plenty  of  practice  to  give  that  free  sweep  of  the  pen  which  is  so 
requisite  for  the  proper  production  of  letters  containing  curves  such  as  these. 


WRITING. 


203 


Croup  Y,  The  curve  again  is  the  common  element,  but  it  is  the  reverse 
curve.  In  this  group  the  curve  falls  to  the  right ;  in  Group  IV.  it  goes  to  the 
left.  It  is  a  down  curve  in  each  letter  except  D,  where  it  is  an  up  curve.  D  is 
a  difficult  letter,  and  will  require  plenty  of  practice. 

If  the  capitals  are  to  be  practised  with  rhomboids  then  copy  books  suitably 
ruled  (B.B.  also)  must  be  supplied. 


IV. 


A  SCHEME  OF  "WRITING  FOR  INFANT  SCHOOLS. 

Writing  can  commence  in  the  earliest  classes  of  an  infant 
school,  for  it  makes  little  or  no  demand  on  the  brain.  It  is  an 
art  which  recognises  the  child's  love  of  activity  by  encouraging  its 
imitative  faculty.  Locke,  in  his  system  of  writing,  recommends 
that  writing  should  begin  when  the  child  can  read  ;  but  there  is  no 
necessity  to  wait  so  long.  Instruction  in  the  two  subjects  may  go 
on  together  ;  and  if  any  preference  in  time  is  to  be  given  to  either, 
then  it  must  be  to  writing,  as  being  the  easier  and  more  pleasing 
exercise. 

I.  Preparation. — There  are  certain  preliminaries  requiring 
the  teacher's  attention  for  the  successful  working  of  any  scheme. 
With  young  children  like  these,  the  holding  of  the  pencil,  the 


204 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


position  of  the  body,  the  length  and  pointing  of  the  pencil,  the 
slates,  and  B.B.  will  all  need  attention.  The  pencils  should  be 
pointed,  and  of  reasonable  length.  Short  pencils  should  be  for- 
bidden, as  they  lead  to  a  cramped  style.  The  slates  should  be 
ruled  on  one  side  in  rhomboids,  and  the  B.B.  should  be  ruled  to 
match  the  slates. 

With  young  children  like  these,  the  formation  of  good  habits  is 
equally  important  with  the  formation  of  a  good  style  of  writing. 
For  this  reason  there  should  be  some  preliminary  drill  leading  up 
to  the  writing  lesson.  The  slates  and  pencils  should  be  orderly 
passed,  the  holding  of  the  pencil  should  be  shown  and  imitated, 
and  the  healthy  position  of  the  children  should  be  insisted  on. 

II.  Plan  of  a  Iiesson. 

1.  Copy   setting.      The  teacher  writes  on  the  B.B.    the  element   or  letter 

which  the  children  have  to  imitate,  the  children  watching  carefully. 

2.  Imitation.     The  children  then  imitate  on  their  slates. 

3.  Position.     Meantime  the  teacher  is  noting  the  position  of  each  child,  and 

the  way  it  is  holding  its  pencil. 

4.  Examination.     Every  step  must  be  seen  by  the  teacher.     The  individual 

efforts  of  the  children  invariably  call  for  fresh  explanation  and  further 
demonstration  on  the  B.  B. 

5.  Repetition.      The  teacher  goes  through  the  same  process  with  the  ne.xt 

portion  of  the  lesson,  and  so  on  until  the  lesson  is  complete. 

6.  Revision.     The  whole  lesson  should  be  revised. 

III.  Order  of  Lessons. 

1.   Early  Lessons. — These  should  be  confined — 

{a)  To  the  simplest  elements  of  the  letters.     The  first  lessons  should  be  de- 
voted to  the  right  line,  and  this  should  be  practised  at  various  heights.. 


The  B.B.  and  one  side  of  the  slates  should  be  ruled  with  rhomboids, 
and  the  earliest  efforts  should  be  limited  to  i  height.  Then  i^  heights, 
and  finally  2  heights.  A  right  line  of  2  heights  requires  more  muscular 
control  than  at  i  height,  hence  a  beginning  should  be  made  with 
I  height.  These  lessons  will  simply  form  another  example  of  their 
earliest  drawing  efforts,  which  will  be  limited  to  straight  lines  drawn 
with  similar  aids.  When  a  fair  degree  of  proficiency  is  attained  on  the 
lines,  the  class  should  receive  lessons  and  practice  in  writing  the  same 
element  between  the  lines. 


WRITING. 


205 


(d)  The  Link  should  be  taken  next,  as  it  is  the  simplest  extension  of  the  right 
line  for  the  purposes  of  writing.  Here,  again,  the  same  order  should 
be  pursued,  both  as  to  heights  and  lines  and  spaces.  The  teacher  might 
then  combine  these  elements  into  a  word— til  -thus  giving  the  first 
lesson  in  joins,  and  bringing  more  interest  to  bear  on  the  work.  The 
addition  of  the  bar  in  the  letter  /  will  present  no  difficulty. 

(<■)  The  Hook.— This  is  another  simple  combination  with  the  right  line.  The 
same  steps  should  be  followed  as  in  the  previous  cases.     The  element 


should  be  practised  separately,  first  on  /ines,  then  in  spaces,  and  then 
with  \}n&  joins.  The  letters  u,  n,  and  m  could  then  be  introduced,  and 
combinations  made  of  these  three  elements  into  words  such  as  in,  tin, 
nit,  til,  rail,  etc.  The  letters  p  and  h  can  now  be  introduced,  the 
number  of  words  thus  being  again  increased.  These  lessons  ought  to 
be  sufficient  for  the  baby  room  and  for  the  class  above,  but  the  division 
of  a  scheme  must  of  necessity  depend  upon  the  number  of  classes  in  the 


2o6 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


school.  But  if  the  school  be  small  or  the  staff  weak,  too  little  should 
be  attempted  at  the  bottom,  rather  than  too  much  at  the  top.  Assuming 
there  are  six  classes  in  the  school,  and  a  baby  room,  the  next  lesson 
should  commence  with  Class  V. 
2.  Class  Y. — The  remaining  elements  should  now  be  introduced,  vz::.,  the 
curve,  single  (()  and  double  (0),  the  loop,  both  up  and  down  /  \  , 

and  the  crotchet  (A*).     They  should  be  introduced  in  the  order  l  >/      '      J 

named,  and  each  element  should  pass  through  the  same  stages  \       '^  ^      / 
of  treatment  as  in  the  previous  cases.     Combinations  should  ^^ 

be  introduced  as  each  element  is  mastered,  so  that  interest  may  not  flag. 
Later  on  the  complex  letters  s,  x,  z,  k  should  be  given  one  at  the  time,  and 
finally  the  class  should  be  writing  small  words.  The  writing  should  be*^!  of 
an  inch. 


3.  Class  IV. — The  work  of  this  class  should  be  a  simple  expansion  of  the 
work  in  Class  V.  Longer  words  should  be  introduced,  and  more  difficult  com- 
binations. The  writing  should  still  be  ^  of  an  inch  in  height.  If  the  rhomboids 
are  retained,  the  height  of  the  rhomboids  must  determine  the  size  of  the  writing  ; 
but,  if  possible,  the  rhomboids  should  be  ruled  |  of  an  inch  in  height. 


//////////// 

'//////// 

II 

JJ  /       /  /  1       / 

, 

/  /  / // //  ////////////////  /\ 

lAp/l////  /  1 

/ , 

/  /  /  f yf /I // fJ4 Pf l^  /  ■* 

^rfJilfi/^/ 

/  / 

/    '///////// 

ft/   1       1 

/ 

\.  Class  III. — The  capital  letters  should  now  be  introduced  in  the  order 
previously  laid  down  for  their  classification.  Their  height  should  be  f  of  an 
inch,  or  twice  the  size  of  the  other  letters.  For  capitals  the  rhomboids  are  per- 
plexing at  first,  but  patience  will  overcome  this  difficulty.  Slates  should  still  be 
used,  but  if  paper  is  adopted  then  the  children  should  have  the  assistance  of 
tracing,  which  could  be  done  by  the  teacher  with  black  lead,  and  should  be 
apportioned  to  the  individual  wants  of  each  child.  Copies  should  be  set  on  the 
B.  B. ,  and  the  construction,  height,  and  proportion  of  each  letter,  as  well  as  the 
joins,  should  be  repeatedly  demonstrated.  The  formation  of  a  good  style  at 
this  plastic  age  is  very  important.     Heights  should  not  yet  be  looped. 

5.  Class  II. — The  work  should  now  be  on  paper,  although  there  is  a  division 
of  opinion  on  the  subject.  The  work  will  consist  of  a  recapitulation  of  the  steps 
already  taken  on  slates.  The  climax  will  be  to  produce  the  same  degree  of  work 
and  excellence  on  paper  that  is  produced  in  Class  IIL  on  slates.  Tracing  will 
still  be  used  with  the  same  restrictions  as  in  the  previous  Standard,  and  the 
teacher  is  recommended  to  paite7-n-iorite,  whenever  opportunity  presents  itself, 
in  the  books  or  on  the  paper  of  each  child.  Nothing  stimulates  effort  and  tends 
to  produce  a  good  style  and  a  uniform  "  hand  "  like  this.  If  the  work  is  still 
confined  to  slates,  a  greater  degree  of  excellence  should  be  expected,  and  double 
heights  (except  d,  of  course)  should  be  looped. 

6.  Class  I. — The  same  standard  of  writing  should  be  reached  here  as  is 
expected  in  Sandard  I. 


WRITING.  207 

THE  SIZE  OF  "WRITING-. 

I.  Small  Hand.— The  introduction  of  small  hand  should  not 
be  deferred  too  long.  Writing,  in  school  life,  obtains  much  of  its 
value  as  an  aid  to  other  departments  of  instruction,  and  it  is  not 
well  to  let  such  a  force  lie  idle  longer  than  necessary,  despite  its 
difficulties. 

1.  Difficulties. — The  chief  difficulties  are  mechanical.  A  finer  command  of 
the  muscles  of  the  hand  and  arm  is  required  ;  the  judgment  requires  more 
development,  for  neither  proportions  nor  space  are  so  obvious  as  in  large  or 
text  hand.  As  a  result  it  makes  more  demand  on  the  eye,  hence  more  cultiva- 
tion is  needed  for  the  proper  appreciation  of  the  forms  and  proportions  of  the 
letters,  and  greater  care  and  exactness  are  required  for  regularity  and  uniformity. 

2.  How  learned.— Small  hand  may  be  learned  best  by  a  careful  gradation 
of  the  size  of  the  writing.  When  children  leave  an  infant  school  their  writing  is 
generally  large  or  half  text.  In  the  upper  departments  a  P'irst  Standard  should 
write  half  text,  i.e.,  the  writing  should  be  about  |  of  an  inch  in  size.  A  large 
small  hand  might  be  adopted  for  Standard  II.,  and  a  legitimate  small  hand 
might  reasonably  be  expected  in  Standard  III. 

The  copy  books  and  exercise  books  should  be  double  ruled  up  to  the 
Third  Standard.  This  mechanical  aid,  supplemented  by  ordinary  care  and 
teaching,  with  pattern-writing  now  and  then  in  the  books  of  the  pupils,  and 
with  demonstrations  of  the  most  apparent  errors  on  the  B.  B, ,  ought  to  secure 
good  small  hand. 

H.  Iiarge  Hand. — There  is  a  good  deal  of  vagueness  as  to 
what  is  meant  by  large  hand.  It  is  synonymous  with  text  and 
half  text,  and  practically  means  that  the  small  letters  are  to 
be  I  of  an  inch  in  height.  The  object  to  be  kept  in  view  is 
command  of  the  pen  and  freedom  of  hand.  It  increases  and 
develops  the  power  gained  over  the  hand,  and  should  therefore 
be  practised  sometimes  in  the  higher  classes.  Apart  from  this  it 
has  a  good  business  value,  and  therefore  should  be  maintained. 
Its  advantages  are  the  antithesis  of  the  difficulties  of  small  hand. 
It  also  provides  a  desirable  change  from  the  small  hand,  appeals 
more  to  the  artistic  sense,  and  helps  to  maintain  a  good  style. 

Copies.  —There  are  three  methods  in  use. 

I.  Set  Copies. — Blank  books  are  used  by  many  teachers  who 
set  their  own  copies  ;  and  where  this  system  is  possible,  it  is 
considered  by  many  to  be  the  best,  for  the  following  reasons:  — 

1.  The  pupil  is  encouraged  to  do  what  he  knows  his  teacher  has  done.     The 

value  of  the  copy  is  increased  if  the  child  can  see  the  teacher  set  the 
copy  under  similar  conditions  to  those  under  which  he  has  to  write  it 
afterwards. 

2.  Writing   is   an   imitative  process,    and   the   imitative   faculty   is    more 

encouraged  than  by  any  other  process. 

3.  Set  copies  are  an  aid  to  discipline.     Children  appreciate  good  writing 

more  rapidly  than  excellence  in  any  other  subject.  The  teacher  who 
\vrites  fine  copy-heads  wins  the  admiration  of  the  class. 

4.  They  can  be  readily  varied  to  suit  the  varying  progress  of  the  different 

scholars. 


2o8  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Objections.— There  are  certain  objections  urged  against  this  system  by  the 
advocates  of  the  next,  whether  the  copy-heads  are  written  in  the  books  or  the 
copy  is  set  from  the  B.B.  In  most  schools  with  their  large  classes  the  B.B. 
copies  must  of  necessity  be  the  form  the  set  copies  take,  as  there  would  not  be 
time  for  individual  copy  setting.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  objections  are 
practically  levelled  against  the  B.B.  copies,  because  few  teachers  have  the  time 
to  practise  the  other  method.     Mr.  Jackson  makes  the  following  objections  :  — 

1.  B.B.    copies    are    inferior  and  defective,  and   inferior   copies   produce 

defective  writing.  The  teacher  requires  to  write  a  good  hand  to  teach 
properly  from  B.B.  copies  ;  but  many  teachers  cannot  write  well,  and 
therefore  for  many  teachers  the  system  is  not  an  efficient  one. 

2.  B.B.  copies  are  irregular  and  varying.      Change  of  class  or  Standard, 

or  change  of  teacher,  will  change  not  only  the  style  of  writing  but  the 
mode  or  method  of  instruction  also. 

3.  B.B.    copies   are   often    ungraded  or  badly  graded.      This  weakness  is 

likely  to  be  found  in  rural  and  very  large  schools.  It  is  asserted  that 
it  is  not  possible  to  obtain  properly  graded  copies  from  haphazard 
sentences  extemporised  for  the  occasion.  The  teacher's  labours  will 
thus  be  heavily  handicapped  and  the  progress  proportionately  retarded. 

4.  B.B.  copies  are  so  transient.      Efficient  correction  is  simply  an  impossi- 

bility, more  particularly  in  large  classes.  After  the  writing  lesson  of 
the  day,  correction  by  comparison  is  out  of  the  question. 

5.  The  promiscuous  character  of  these  copies  seriously  militates  against  their 

adoption.  The  copies  are  neither  consecutive,  well  arranged,  nor 
educative  very  often. 

6.  Individual  grading  is  impossible  with  B.B.  copies,  and  this  is  one  of  the 

most  serious  flaws  of  the  system ;  40  to  60  boys,  however  classified, 
must  require  distinct  and  separate  treatment,  and  they  cannot  get  it 
from  B.B.  copies. 

7.  B.B.  copies  waste  time — the  time  the  teacher  takes  in  setting  the  copy,  the 

time  the  quick,  the  gifted,  and  the  facile  lose  in  going  the  .same  pace  as 
the  slov/est  members  of  the  class. 

8.  B.B.  copies  are  mo7'e  difficult.     It  is  much  easier  \.o  facsimile  the  same 

size,  than  to  reduce  ^x\6.  facsimile.  It  is  easier  to  imitate  a  copy  on  paper 
than  a  copy  on  a  B.B.  often  many  feet  distant  from  the  paper. 

9.  B.B.   copies  make  no  provision  for  shortsighted  children,  and  this  may 

prove  another  serious  objection. 

10.  They  make  no  provision  for  absentees.     This  becomes  a  particular  case 

of  the  sixth  objection.  If  a  child  has  been  absent  for  some  time,  it  has 
to  do  the  same  work  as  those  whose  instruction  and  practice  have 
never  stopped. 
Ti.  Genei-ally,  the  use  of  blank  books  is  an  attempt  to  elevate  an  art  by  the 
removal  of  its  highest  and  most  perfect  models,  and  by  the  substitution 
of  inferior  standards. 

H.  Engraved  Headlines. — This  is  the  copy-book  system,  with 
its  printed  or  engraved  copies.  It  is  the  system  generally  in  use, 
and  the  large  classes  of  our  town  modern  schools  make  it  almost 
a  necessity.  It  is  an  easy  plan,  and  saves  the  teacher's  time,  but 
it  is  not  considered  a  good  plan  by  some  until  the  child  has 
mastered  the  ordinary  difficulties  of  writing;  and  an  abuse  of  the 
system  has  been  responsible  for  a  good  deal  of  bad  writing. 
These  headlines  are  one  of  the  results  of  the  pupil  teacher 
system,  and  an  able  and  conscientious  pupil  teacher  could  give 
good   writing  lessons  with  their  aid. 


WRITING. 


209 


The  engraved  headlines  can  be  placed  two  or  three  on  a  page, 
and  they  are,  as  a  rule,  well  graduated  and  often  educative. 
Mechanical  aids,  where  necessary,  are  given,  and  to  the  extent 
thought  desirable.  If  each  page  contains  several  copies,  there  is 
some  guarantee  that  the  pupils  will  imitate  their  copies.  But 
unless  the  books  are  inspected  every  two  or  three  lines,  or  unless 
the  teacher  is  passing  continuously  from  boy  to  boy  during  the 
writing  lesson,  the  copies  will  often  be  unnoticed  by  the  pupils, 
and  bad  habits  and  bad  writing  are  very  often  the  result.  A  study 
of  the  objections  to  B.B.  copies  would  suggest  the  advantages 
alleged  by  some  teachers  to  be  possessed  by  engraved  head- 
lines. 

m.  Copy  Slips. — Undoubtedly  this  is  the  worst  method,  and 
fortunately  it  is  rapidly  disappearing.  The  following  are  the  ob- 
jections usually  put  forward  against  them  : — ■ 

1.  Pupils  write  first  line  from  imitation,  and  then  very  often  take  no  further 

notice  of  their  copy  slip.  Close  supervision  is  the  only  way  to  check 
this.  ; 

2.  The  copy  slips  soon  become  dirty  and  ragged,  and  their  moral  influence 

is  then  bad  for  the  school. 

3.  However  expeditiously  they  may  be  distributed,  there  must  always  be  an 

unnecessary  expenditure  of  time  over  the  process.  The  little  thought 
required  to  fix  and  select  a  properly  graded  copy  may  become  a  serious 
item  in  the  total,  especially  if  the  class  is  a  large  one. 

4.  But  used  by  a  skilful  and  careful  teacher,  in  conjunction  with  the  B.  B. , 

they  may  be  of  some  use.  The  system  allows  good  gradation,  and  the 
copy  slips  may  be  moved  down  the  book  so  as  to  have  the  copy  always 
immediately  above  the  pupil's  writing. 

TRACING. 

I.  Advantages. — Tracing  in  writing  is  some  aid  to  a  beginner. 
The  muscles  are  trained,  the  style  of  writing  is  more  or  less  fixed, 
the  proportions  of  letters  are  given,  the  spacing  is  regulated,  the 
joins  and  uniformity  of  thickness  are  taught,  the  eye  and  the 
judgment  are  simultaneously  cultivated  with  the  muscles,  and  the 
class  all  acquire  the  same  "  hand". 

H.  Teaching.— The  chief  thing  for  the  teacher  to  decide  is 
how  much  tracing  can  be  allowed  with  the  greatest  profit.  Writing 
is  an  imitative  art,  and  is  commenced  when  the  imitative  faculty 
is  strong  in  children,  and  the  muscles  are  plastic.  But  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  teaches  much  in  the  way  of  imitation.  It  is 
good  hand  training ;  it  is  not  so  certain  that  it  is  good  eye  training. 
The  children  often  trace  or  mark  over  the  letters  mechanically, 
with  little  or  no  thought  of  form. 

14 


2IO  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

All  new  elements  should  be  traced  as  they  are  introduced;  and 
they  should  be  introduced  as  laid  down  in  the  "  System  of  Writing 
for  Infant  Schools  ".  The  amount  of  tracing  requisite  really 
depends  upon  the  individual  capacity  of  each  child  ;  but  as  the 
teacher  will  be  compelled  to  adopt  a  series  of  copy  books,  as  a 
rule,  he  should  seek  a  series  which  grades  the  tracing  best.  Some 
such  graduation  as  follows  should  be  expected : — 

1.  The  element  is  introduced,  and  there  will  be  a  copy  or  two  of  tracing. 

2.  Then  follow  copies  in  which  the  tracing  is  intermitted  with  independent 

effort,  the  intervals  for  the  latter  gradually  becoming  less. 

3.  Then  will  follow  a  copy  or  two  of  independent  effort. 

4.  The  next  element  should  then  be  introduced,  and  the  same  order  should 

be  observed. 

5.  Combination  exercises  should  then  be  given. 

6.  This  order  will  be  continued  until  a  letter  or  letters  can  be  made.     The 

tracing  should  still  be  graded,  but  the  quantity  should  be  reduced. 

7.  Tracing  will  not  be  needed  beyond  the  "  letter  "  stage.     When  a  pupil 

can  make  "  letters  ''  he  should  be  thrown  on  his  own  resources,  so  far 
as  tracing  is  concerned. 

m.  Disadvantages. 

1.  Unless  carefully  watched  and  regulated,  tracing  may  make  the  children 

dependent,  careless,  and  lazy. 

2.  If  the  teacher  uses  blank  books,  or  gives  tracing  assistance  in  any  books, 

he  must  be  a  good  writer,  or  the  class  will  repeat  his  deficiencies. 

3.  The  printed  copies  for  tracing,  with  their  copperplate  perfection,  often 

discourage    the    scholar,    who   thinks   such    excellence    unattainable. 
Hence  the  teacher  must  often  supply  the  trace  in  black  lead. 

4.  It  allows  the  pupils,  unless  closely  watched,  to  begin  their  letters  any- 

where, and  so  to  generate  bad  habits  in  writing. 

HOW  TO  TEST  "WllITING. 

1.  The  down  strokes  of  right  lines  must  be  of  uniform  thickness. 

2.  The  strokes  must  not  be  rough. 

3.  The  letters  must  be  well  proportioned. 

4.  The  links  and  hooks  must  be  neither  too  thick  nor  too  fine. 

5.  The  curves  must  be  properly  formed. 

6.  The  letters  must  be  properly  joined. 

7.  The  letters  must  preserve  their  parallelism. 

8.  The  form  of  the  letters  must  be  accurate. 

9.  The  letters  must  be  carefully  spaced. 

10.  The  composition,  transcription,  and  dictation  exercise  should  bear  out 

the  style  and  character  of  the  copy  setting. 

GOOD  WRITING.  y 

I.  Its  Characteristics.— These  are   legibility,  grace   or  sym- 
metry, ease  and  rapidity. 

n.  How  Secured. 

I.   Legibility. — Legibility  in  writing  ought  to  be  as  important  as  distinctness 
in  articulation.     This  is  the  first  and  most  essential  attribute  of  writing,  and  if 


WRITING.  211 

necessary  everything  else  should  give  way  to  it.  If  the  writing  is  to  be  legible 
the  letters  must  be  simple,  for  flourishes  spoil  legibility.  The  letters  should  be 
round  or  oval,  according  to  the  style  used,  but  never  pointed,  as  in  the  angular 
Italian  "  ladies'  "  hand.  Good  writing  is  always  legible,  and  the  upright  hand 
is  probably  more  legible  than  the  sloping.  The  heights  and  thickness  of  the 
letters  must  be  attended  to,  for  uniformity  aids  legibility.  The  letters  and  words 
should  also  be  correctly  spaced,  and  the  joins  carefully  made. 

2.  Grace.  — By  grace  or  symmetry  of  style  we  mean  that  the  forms  of  the 
letters  should  be  pleasing  to  the  eye.  Many  of  the  elements  of  legibility  are 
also  elements  of  Vjeauty,  especially  parallelism,  finish,  and  uniformity. 

3.  Ease  and  Rapidity.— These  are  the  result  mainly  of  a  good  style  and 
plenty  of  practice.  The  position  of  the  body,  the  manner  of  holding  the  pen, 
the  style  of  writing  adopted,  the  kind  of  training  the  pupil  has  received  in  this 
subject,  the  absence  of  flourishes,  and  personal  endowment  are  all  factors 
requiring  attention.  The  pupil  should  not  be  allowed  to  take  the  pen  off  the 
paper,  as  a  rule,  whilst  writing  a  word,  or  the  writing  may  be  neither  free  nor 
flowing.     Under  no  circumstances  must  legibility  be  sacrificed  to  pace. 

Points  to  be  Noticed  in  Writing^  Lessons.     (Fearon.) 

1.  The  difference  between  examination  and  teaching.     Is  every  child  taught 

to  write,   or  is  the  teacher  merely  satisfied  with  examining  how  he 
writes  ? 

2.  Let  the  child  begin  to  handle  the  pen  as  soon  as  possible ;  i.e.,  as  soon 

as  he  has  progressed  far  enough  in  the  use  of  the  pencil. 

3.  Is  the  work  of  the  classes  systematically  corrected,  so  as  to  regulate  pace 

as  well  as  to  test  the  results  ? 

4.  Can  the  teacher  write  well  on  the  B.  B.  ? 

5.  Can  he  give  collective  instruction  in  writing? 

With  respect  to  number  4  the  Department  has  expressed  an  opinion  on 
this  subject.  It  says  :  "  The  capacity  to  teach  handwriting  is  an  essen- 
tial qualification  of  any  teacher  ;  but  a  teacher  who  is  himself  a  bad 
writer  can  never,  by  the  most  skilful  teaching,  entirely  destroy  the  bad 
effect  of  his  own  example". 

CHIEF  ERRORS  IN  "WRITING. — The  Education  Depart- 
ment itself  has  laid  down  the  most  noticeable  errors  in  writing. 
According  to  its  own  memorandum  issued  on  the  subject,  these 
are  : — 

1.  "  Want  of  uniformity  in  the  thickness  of  the  straight  lines. 

2.  Roughness  of  stroke. 

3.  Letters  too  tall  or  too  short. 

4.  Links  and  hooks  too  thick  or  too  fine. 

5.  Curves  wrongly  formed. 

6.  Letters  not  properly  formed ;  "  and  to  these  might  be  added  : — 

7.  Unsuitable  slope.     It  is  sometimes  too  great,  sometimes  not  parallel, 

.sometimes  too  acute,  sometimes  too  obtuse.      From  90°  to  60°  is  the 
best  angle. 

8.  ' '  Writing  as  taught  in  schools  is  apt  to  be  too  small  and  indistinct. 

I^upils  should  be  taught  to  write  a  firm,  round,  legible  hand." 

How  to  Deal  with  Them. 

1.  There  should  Ixi  demonstration  on  the  B.  B. ,  and  explanation  of  style, 
rules,  etc.,  followed  by  pattern  writing  in  the  books  of  the  chief 
offenders  against  uniformity  of  thickness. 


212  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

2.  Pattern  writing  is  the  best  remedy  for  this. 

3.  The  sizes  of  the  letters  should  be  given,  and  their  relative  sizes  demon- 

strated on  the  B.B. ,  which  should  be  ruled  to  match  the  style  of  ruling 
on  the  slates.  The  errors  should  be  placed  side  by  side  on  the  B.  B. 
with  the  corrected  copy. 

4.  These  elements  should  be  analysed  on  the  B.  B. ,  and  the  correction  should 

then  proceed  as  in  number  3.  Analysis,  comparison,  and  pattern 
writing  should  follow  each  other. 

5.  Correct  the  position  of  the  body,  and  see  that  the  pen  is  held  properly. 

The  curves  are  often  badly  made  through  physical  faults.  They  are 
often  wrongly  formed  through  bad  teaching,  no  teaching,  bad  super- 
vision, and  an  abuse  of  rhomboids. 

6.  The  same  remarks  are  equally  true  here.      Both  faults  have  the  same 

origin,  and  require  the  same  treatment.  The  incorrect  and  the 
correct  should  be  pointed  out  on  the  B.  B.  side  by  side  ;  the  letters 
should  be  analysed,  and  slowly  formed  in  the  presence  of  the  class. 
Plenty  of  practice  should  then  be  given,  supported  by  close  supervision. 

7.  Use  rhomboids,  and  give  plenty  of  practice. 

8.  The  remedy  is  obvious. 

Vertical  Writing. — The   advocates  of  this   system   offer  the 
following  arguments  in  support  of  it : — 

1.  It  is  the  most  scientific,  hygienic,  consistent,  and  comprehensive.     Three 

of  these  claims  are  debatable,  but  there  is  no  doubt  about  the  other. 
This  system  is  undoubtedly  more  healthy  than  the  sloping  style.  The 
body  is  straight  and  the  shoulders  are  level.  The  two  arms  are  placed 
equally,  and  the  result  is  no  twisting  of  the  back,  and  no  risk  of 
curvature  of  the  spine.  Obliquity  of  vision  is  also  guarded  against,  for 
the  eyes  are  at  equal  distances  from  the  writing.  The  writing,  being 
upright,  makes  less  strain  on  the  eyes,  for  they  are  accustomed  to  the 
upright  style  in  printing.  It  is  also  claimed  for  it  that  it  prevents 
writers'  cramp,  and  adapts  itself  equally  to  both  hands. 

2.  It  is  the  most  simple  and  natural. 

3.  It  is  the  easiest  to  teach,  learn,  and  write. 

4.  It  is  the  most  rapid,  legible,  fluent,  and  elegant. 

It  is  undoubtedly  the  most  rapid,  for  the  strokes  being  shorter  must  take 
less  time  in  making.  Its  approximation  to  printing,  so  far  as  direction 
is  concerned,  and  its  rounder  base  make  it  the  most  legible. 

5.  It  is  the  most  educative  and  the  most  carefully  graded. 

6.  It  is  free  from  all  empirical  disfigurements,  for  it  has  simple  capitals  and 

short  loops. 

7.  It  secures  the  greatest  freedom  in  junction. 

8.  It  presents  a  minimum  of  shading  in  the  down  strokes. 


Slates  or  Paper? 

Should  young  children  begin  to  write  on  slates  or  on  paper  ? 
There  is  some  diversity  of  opinion,  but  there  is  not  much  diversity 
in  practice  on  the  subject.  The  following  arguments  are 
used : — 


WRITING, 


213 


Slates. 


1.  Slates  are  more  economical.  It  is  al- 
most too  expensive  to  furnish  every  child 
continuously  with  paper  in  every  school,  and 
paper  writing  requires  more  teaching  and 
more  supervision. 

2.  Slates  are  more  conducive  to  order 
than  paper,  unless  the  school  is  remarkably 
well  staffed.  They  are  sooner  given  out, 
and  more  easily  managed. 

3.  Progress  is  more  rapid  with  slates 
than  with  paper— at  first ;  and,  as  writing 
helps  spelling,  composition,  transcription, 
and  dictation,  there  is  better  progress  made 
in  these  subjects.  Again,  the  pencil  is 
easier  to  manipulate  than  the  pen,  and  this 
brings  slate  writing  under  the  general 
principle  that  difficulties  should  be  ap- 
proached one  at  a  time. 

4.  The  Code  begins  with  slates. 

5.  Slates  often  involve  the  use  of  stumps 
of  pencil,  and  they  are  therefore  risky 
training. 

6.  The  ease  with  which  errors  can  be  cor- 
rected makes  children  careless. 

7.  The  cleaning  of  slates  is  generally 
filthy  and  dangerous. 


Paper. 


1.  Paper  is  more  instructive.  Experi- 
ence shows  that  the  ability  to  write  well  on 
slates  does  not  necessarily  mean  ability  to 
write  well  on  paper ;  whereas,  generally, 
the  children  who  can  write  well  on  paper 
can  write  well  on  slates. 

2.  Paper  is  best  for  discipline.  Habits 
of  care,  accuracy,  neatness,  and  beauty  are 
more  likely  to  be  engendered  by  paper. 

3.  Some,  however,  dispute  this.  They 
maintain  that  to  begin  on  paper  is  the 
quickest  and  most  profitable  way,  and  that 
slate  writing  is  often  a  hindrance  to  writing 
well  on  paper,  from  the  formation  of  bad 
habits.  Children  can  begin  on  paper  with 
black  lead  pencils.  This  is  a  compromise 
between  paper  and  slates ;  but  with  young 
children  the  breaking  of  the  pencil  points 
is  a  serious  consideration. 

Judgment.  A  weighing  of  this  evidence 
shows  that — 

Theoretically  it  is  best  to  begin  on  paper, 
for  children  gain  greater  ability,  are  better 
trained  morally,  and  avoid  hindrances. 

Practically.  Experience  shows  that  it  is 
best  to  begin  on  slates.  It  is  more  econo- 
mical, more  orderly,  and  more  profitable  for 
a  time. 


Manual  Employments  and  "Writing^. 

The  connection  between  these  two  things  is  educationally 
very  important ;  for  as  writing  is  essentially  a  matter  for  both 
hand  and  eye,  and  as  the  one  great  object  of  all  manual  employ- 
ments is  to  train  both  hand  and  eye,  the  connection  stands 
revealed  at  once.  This  truth  is  obvious  from  an  examination  of 
the  qualities  required  for  writing.  The  eye  has  to  learn  to 
distinguish  the  shades  of  outline,  heights,  and  distances,  which 
vary  absolutely  and  relatively,  and  to  appreciate  the  different 
grades  of  beauty  in  the  various  forms  of  curve  employed.  The 
child  must  learn  to  perceive  a  shape  before  he  can  imitate  it. 
Then  comes  manual  training.  The  discipline  of  the  muscles, 
regulated  by  the  judgment  of  the  eye,  and  both  demanding  much 
practice,  shows  writing  to  be  essentially  a  matter  of  hand  and  eye 
training. 

Now,  the  problem  is,  which  of  the  many  exercises  embraced 
under  the  terms  Kindergarten  or  Manual  Training  give  this 
required  training  in  the  sense  demanded  by  writing,  remembering 
that  the  problem  applies  to  Infant  School  children  ? 

The    Kindergarten    method   of  learning   to  write  shows  that 


214 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


several  "  occupations"  contribute  to  this  training,  for  this  method 
consists  of  four  steps,  each  of  which  is  a  means  for  manual 
training. 

1.  Clay  Modelling. — The  hand  is  first  trained  upon  moulding  objects  in  clay. 

2.  Paper  Cutting. — The- cutting  out  of  paper  figures  follows. 

3.  Drawing. — These  exercises  gradually  lead  up  to  elementary  drawing. 

4.  Writing. — The  children  then  commence  writing  lessons. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  drawing  is  the  final  step  preparatory  to 
writing  itself;  and  if  drawing  be  reckoned  among  such  employ- 
ments, it  undoubtedly  assists  more  than  anything,  for  writing  is 
but  another  form  of  drawing.  This  is  obvious  from  a  comparison 
of  the  elements  involved. 


Writine 


/ 
/ 

The  right  line. 
The  link. 
The  hook. 
The  crotchet. 

coo 

The  curve. 
The  bar. 

Writing  is  a  combination 
these. 

of 

\/ 


Drawing. 


Perpendicular  line. 
Horizontal  line. 

Oblique  lines. 

Various  forms  of  the  curve,  including 

the  O  (circle). 
Drawing  is  a  combination  of  these. 


Ruling  of  Slates. 

Slates  may  be  ruled  in  several  different  ways,  all  of  which 
have  something  to  be  said  in  their  favour.  One  important 
method,  the  rhomboidal,  has  already  been  pointed  out  and  illus- 
trated, but  other  methods  are  now  more  frequently  used.  To  say 
nothing  of  the  trouble  or  expense  of  ruling,  just  where  the  rhom- 
boids are  most  useful,  there  they  are  most  confusing.  Young 
children  get  muddled  and  discouraged  with  the  many  lines  of  this 
method  and  its  many  technicalities. 

Generally,  the  style  of  ruling  adopted  will  depend  upon  the 
class.  The  younger  the  class,  up  to  a  certain  limit,  the  more  help 
they  want. 

For  Infants. — As  a  rule  four  lines  are  used  in  ruling  the  slates,  but  five  are  an 
improvement.  When  four  only  are  used  no  line  is  given  for  joins,  and  children 
require  as  much  help  there  as  anywhere.  The  object  is  to  avoid  confusing  the 
children  whilst  helping  them,  and  this  is  easily  done  by  a  judicious  mixture  of 
faint  and  thick  lines!  A  specimen  of  the  proposed  ruling  follows.  Between 
each  complete  set  of  lines  as  here  shown  a  space  of  j-\  of  an  inch  should  be 
left. 


WRITING. 


215 


g  of  an  inch  space. 


For  Standard  I.— Less  help  should  now  be  given,  and  only  sets  of  three 
lines  should  be  used,  one  for  heights  and  one  for  the  ordinary  letters.  The  size 
of  the  writing  should  be  reduced,  and  the  spacings  between  sets  of  lines  should 
be  less.  This  ruling  will  suit  Standard  I.  also  in  an  Infant  School,  or  any 
class  approximating  to  the  work  of  Standard  I.  The  line  for  the  joins  may  or 
may  not  be  retained,  but  where  possible  it  ought  to  be  omitted.  If  retained 
this  gives  two  alternative  forms  for  threefold  ruling  ;  one  as  in  the  specimen 
given  below,  and  the  other  consisting  of  the  two  thick  lines,  with  a  centre  faint 
one  for  the  joins.  The  one  system  fixes  the  heights  and  depths  of  long  letters, 
the  other  the  joins  :  and  as  there  are  many  more  joins  than  heights  the  method 
of  joins  is  probably  the  better. 


4  of  an  inch. 


(W)yy////A 


Ur/7/77j 


For  Standard  II. — The  ruling  should  now  simply  be  two  lines,  at  such  a 
distance  as  gives  what  is  called  a  large  small  hand.  Such  ruling  is  found  in 
some  of  the  blank  copy  books,  and  is  generally  spoken  of  as  double  lines.  A 
specimen  follows : — 


r  yiy/j^rm//m///jy  vy> 


2i6  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Other  Standards. — These  should  be  left  to  the  ordinary  one-line  ruling,  as 
seen  in  copy  books  and  exercise  books.  If  any  assistance  is  required  in  correct- 
ing faults  and  giving  practice  to  prevent  their  recurrence,  Mulhauser's  rhomboids 
might  be  used.     But  they  should  be  dropped  as  soon  as  the  correction  is  fixed. 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Write  as  a  large  hand  copy  the  words  "  Geometrical  Drawing,"  and  point  out 
which  of  the  letters  are  likely  to  present  special  difficulties  to  a  young  scholar,  and  what 
rules  should  be  observed  in  forming  such  letters. 

2. — Arrange  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  order  of  their  difficulty  for  the  teaching 
of  writing ;  and  show  how  you  would  group  together  the  easiest  of  them,  for  lessons  to 
young  beginners. 

3. — Show  how  you  would  group  the  capital  letters  in  the  English  alphabet  for  teaching. 

4. — Show  what  kind  of  ruling  on  the  slates  and  copy  books  of  the  younger  children 
is  best  suited  to  teach  the  proper  forms  and  proportions  of  letters.     Give  illustrations. 

5. — Write  six  capital  letters  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  the  proper  forms  and  pro- 
portions of  their  parts,  and  say  how  you  would  give  a  lesson  on  them. 

6. — Write  the  words  ''  Geographical  Analysis"  in  text  hand,  and  give  rules  for  the 
length  of  the  letters  p,  h,  I,  and  y. 

7. — Explain  fully  the  principles  of  Mulhauser's  method  of  teaching  writing;  and 
write  the  word  "  trustfulness  "  according  to  that  method. 

8. — Describe  the  proper  position  of  the  body  for  writing,  the  right  way  of  holding 
the  pen,  and  the  best  way  of  setting  copies  for  advanced  classes. 

9. — What  elements  are  common  to  the  written  letters  p,  q,  h,  g,  d,  y  ?  In  what 
order,  and  in  what  combinations,  would  you  teach  these  elements  to  infants  ? 

10. — What  are  the  chief  difficulties  to  be  encountered  by  a  child  beginning  small 
hand  copies  ?     How  would  you  deal  with  them  ? 

II.— Arrange  the  following  words  in  order  according  to  the  difficulty  of  writing  they 
present  to  beginners,  and  give  your  reasons :  man,  mat,  mamma,  mask,  mast,  men,  meat, 
mend,  mane,  most,  mind. 

12. — Show  clearly  the  elementary  component  parts  of  the  written  letters  a,  h,  g,  m,  d. 

13. — How  would  you  teach  children  to  write  (a)  on  slates,  or  (b)  on  paper  ?  What 
are  the  important  points  to  be  attended  to  in  teaching  children  to  write  ? 

14. — Show  how  you  would  group  or  classify  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  for  teaching 
the  elements  of  writing  to  very  young  children.  Explain  by  an  illustration  what  use  can 
be  made  of  the  system  of  threefold  ruling  on  slate  or  copy  book. 

15. — Say  what  use  you  think  it  right  to  make  of  "tracing"  in  teaching  writing. 
Write  in  large  hand  the  five  capital  letters  B,  K,  Q,  M,  W,  and  point  out  the  commoner 
faults  made  by  learners  in  forming  them. 

16. — Draw  up  a  course  to  be  followed  in  the  teaching  of  handwriting  to  each  of  the 
classes  of  an  infant  school,  giving  examples  of  the  size  and  style  of  the  letters  you  would 
adopt. 

17. — Which  do  you  prefer  in  teaching  writing — engraved  copies,  or  copies  set  by  the 
teacher  on  the  B.B.  ?  Give  reasons  for  your  preference,  and  write,  as  illustrations  of  the 
true  forms  and  proportions  of  letters,  four  capital  letters  and  tour  small  letters  such  as 
should  be  grouped  together  for  the  purpose  of  teaching. 

18. — Classify  the  capital  letters  according  to  the  similarity  of  their  forms,  and  the 
order  in  which  you  would  teach  them.  Give  specimens  of  any  six  capital  letters,  carefully 
written,  so  as  to  illustrate  their  proportions  and  the  rules  for  their  formation. 

19. — What  are  the  advantages  of  teaching  large  hand  before  small  or  running  hand, 
and  how  far  is  it  desirable  to  continue  large  hand  practice  in  the  upper  classes  ?  Give  a 
model  copy  in  each  hand. 

20. — Give  some  simple  rules  showing  the  best  way  of  conducting  a  class  lesson  in 
writing. 

21.— Describe  the  best  way  of  ruling  slates  so  as  to  help  young  scholars  to  under- 
stand the  forms  and  proportions  of  letters.     Give  an  example. 

22. — Describe  the  way  of  teaching  the  children  to  hold  their  pencils  properly.  What 
are  the  common  mistakes  to  be  guarded  against  ? 

23. — In  writing  in  copy  books  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  repeat  the  same  mistake 
down  a  whole  page.     What  is  the  best  method  of  correcting  this  ? 

24. — What  is  the  use  of  tracing  in  the  earlier  copy  book  exercises,  and  what  are  the 
objections,  if  any,  to  the  practice  ? 

25. — Write  the  word  '^striding"  in  small  letters,  and  point  out  the  mistakes  in  it 
which  you  would  watch  for. 

26. — What  use  could  you  make  of  a  threefold  ruling  of  the  lines  on  a  child's  slate  and 
on  the  teacher's  B.B.,  in  order  to  show  more  clearly  the  forms  and  proportions  of  letters 
and  the  mode  of  joining  them  ? 

27. — Which  of  the  manual  employments  of  an  infant  school  is  most  useful  as  3  help 
jn  the  teaching  of  writing  ?      Explain  and  illustrate  your  answer. 


217 


CHAPTER  XII. 
GEOGRAPHY. 

OBJECTS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAFHV. 

I.  Primary. — The  practical  value  attached  to  a  knowledge  of 
the  subject  must  always  be  considered  its  primary  object,  and 
the  chief  practical  objects  are  as  follow  : — 

1.  Maps  and  Flans. — The  pupil  is  taught  to  grasp  the  mean- 
ing and  use  of  these,  and  as  they  figure  appreciably  in  the  every- 
day life  of  the  people,  a  right  understanding  of  them  is  important. 

2.  Trade  and  Commerce. — England  is  the  greatest  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  nation  of  the  world.  If  this  supremacy 
is  to  be  maintained,  the  productive  districts  and  the  chief 
markets,  actual  and  potential,  should  be  known.  The  quickest, 
safest,  and  cheapest  trade  routes  ;  the  national  tastes  and  require- 
ments of  foreign  customers  ;  the  sources  of  our  food  supply,  and 
many  kindred  questions  also  become  of  vital  importance. 

3.  Literature. — Much  of  our  literature,  and  especially  news- 
papers, assumes  a  fair  amount  of  geographical  knowledge,  hence 
this  subject  should  be  taught  for  the  intelligent  comprehension  of 
modern  literature. 

4.  Emigration. — England  is  said  to  be  over-populated,  and 
fields  for  emigration  are  essential  to  relieve  the  surplus  popula- 
tion, and  to  carry  out  the  advisable  and  beneficent  planting  of  the 
earth  by  the  English  people. 

5.  Naval  Power. — England  is  the  greatest  naval  and  maritime 
power  in  the  world.  From  this  point  of  view  alone  the  necessity 
for  geographical  knowledge  is  obvious. 

H.  Secondary. — Rightly  taught,  the  subject  is  interesting, 
instructive,  pleasant,  and  intellectual.  It  affords  excellent  oppor- 
tunities for  intellectual  training ;  observation,  imagination, 
memory,  and  reasoning  all  being  cultivated  by  its  teaching. 
These  subjects  are  dealt  with  niore  fully  under  the  next  beading. 


2i8  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

If  the  subject  is  to  be  presented  to  the  pupils  in  an  interesting 
and  scientific  manner,  if  the  interest  is  to  be  maintained,  and  if 
the  dull  and  backward  children  are  not  to  be  left  in  the  rear,  then 
there  are  certain  general  principles  which  it  will  be  necessary  to 
observe  in  its  teaching. 

1.  Illustration. — The  subject  must  be  profusely  illustrated, 
for  this  arouses  interest  and  gives  life  to  the  lesson.  The  B.B. 
should  be  freely  used,  and  sketches  in  coloured  chalks  introduced 
where  necessary.  Maps  and  diagrams  of  all  sorts,  apparatus  and 
models,  are  essential.  Objects  of  manufactures,  export  and  import, 
should  be  exhibited.  Even  reading,  poetry,  and  anecdotes  may 
be  utilised  for  this  purpose.  Treatment  of  this  sort  will  tend  to 
destroy  the  still  paramount  idea  among  children,  that  geography 
is  a  dry  subject. 

2.  Intelligence. —One  of  the  great  faults  of  modern  geography 
lessons  is  the  undue  use  of  the  memory  involved.  Memory  will 
always  be  necessary,  but  the  higher  faculties  of  the  mind  should 
be  called  into  play.  The  reasoning  powers  of  the  pupils  should  be 
taxed.  Observation  should  be  stimulated  by  careful  attention  to 
the  local  physical  and  political  facts.  So  far  as  possible,  the 
locality  of  the  school  should  be  made  to  furnish  the  illustrations, 
the  instances,  and  sometimes  even  the  lessons  themselves.  The 
pupils  will  then  see  things  more  fully,  and  with  more  interest. 
They  will  form  the  habit  of  noticing  things  in  the  best  sense  of  the 
word.  Then,  in  good  lessons,  there  is  plenty  of  scope  for  the 
proper  development  of  the  imagination,  and  for  this  purpose  ideas 
rather  than  words  must  be  given.  Graphic  description  must  be 
cultivated  by  the  teacher,  so  that  the  mental  image  created  by  the 
child  may  approximate  to  the  real  thing  described.  The  mental 
effort  required  to  form  a  picture  of  an  Indian  forest,  or  a  mine,  is 
greatly  aided  by  good  verbal  description,  pictures,  and  sketches. 
There  should  also  be  continuity  in  the  teaching.  Isolated  facts 
have  little  interest  for  children,  so  that  each  fact  should  be  pre- 
sented in  relation  to  other  facts. 

3.  Memory. — The  abuse  of  geography  chiefly  rests  here.  The 
memory  is  often  overworked,  to  the  neglect  of  the  other  faculties 
involved.  The  object  of  the  teacher  is  to  get  the  biggest  return 
for  the  smallest  outlay  of  memory.  Too  often  there  is  mere  rote 
\york,  without  any,  or  with  but  little  intelligence,  as  in  the  learning 


GEOGRAPHY.  219 

of  strings  of  bays,  capes,  or  counties.  To  avoid  this  we  must 
arouse  interest  by  natural  associations.  Classifications  must  be  made 
on  the  basis  of  real  resemblances.  A  free  use  of  comparison  and 
contrast,  which  present  the  positive  and  negative  side  of  the  com- 
parative method,  should  be  made,  and  the  assistance  of  drawing 
and  pictures  should  be  enlisted  ;  for  drawing  is  a  fine  aid  to  the 
graphic  memory,  whilst  pictures  appeal  to  the  pictorial  memory, 
which  is  good  in  most  children. 

Instances  oi  natural  association  would  be  the  joining  of  certain 
bays  with  certain  ports  ;  coal  fields  with  m.anufactures ;  produc- 
tions with  industries.  The  etymology  of  the  names  of  places  may 
be  given  in  the  higher  classes,  and  some  choice  may  be  exercised 
in  the  presentation  of  facts.  This  choice  of  facts  should  be  regu- 
lated by  the  following  rules  : — 

(a)  All  statistics  should  be  given  in  comparison  with  some  well-known  stan- 
dard ;  e.^.,  all  areas  might  be  compared  with  that  of  England. 
(d)  General  statistics  should  be  given  in  round  numbers. 
(r)  Special  statistics  in  exact  figures. 

4.  Reasoning. — Classifications,  generalisations,  and  discoveries 
have  to  be  made ;  cause  and  effect  traced ;  and  the  general  truths 
of  the  subject  demonstrated  and  grasped. 

5.  Graduation. — The  first  lessons  should  be  very  simple,  and 
there  should  be  a  careful  graduation  of  subsequent  lessons. 
Familiar  terms  should  be  used  where  possible,  rather  than 
technical  ones,  which  could  and  should  be  introduced  later;  e.g., 
"neck"  for  "  isthmus,"  "feeder"  for  "tributary,"  etc.  Then  the 
lessons  should  be  short,  so  that  they  may  be  thorough,  and  they 
should  show  a  unity  of  plan.  There  is  always  a  temptation  to 
digress,  and  this  should  be  resisted. 

6.  Realistic.  -The  teaching  should  be  realistic.  The  children 
should  be  encouraged  to  observe  local  features,  and  to  describe 
them  orally  to  the  teacher.  The  child's  knowledge  and  experience 
should  be  used,  for  this  knowledge  will  form  the  basis  for  efforts 
of  constructive  imagination  when  proceeding  to  the  unknown.  By 
the  aid  of  models,  toys,  apparatus,  and  specimens,  the  real  things,  or 
substantial  approximations  to  them,  can  be  shown.  Children  can 
see  in  this  way  real  miniature  mountains,  real  rivers,  real  capes,  etc. 

FIRST  IiESSONS  IN  GEOGRAPHV. 

The  first  lessons  in  geography  should  be  given  as  a  series  of 
object  lessons  connected  with  familiar  things,  and  freely  illustrated 
by  pictures,     The  children  will  then  commence— as  they  should-^ 


220  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

with  the  concrete,  for  the  elementary  notions  that  form  the  basis 
of  all  true  geographical  teaching  must  be  gained  through  the 
senses,  and  the  subsequent  transition  to  the  abstract  will  then  be 
made  with  greater  ease  and  success.  The  more  simple  objects 
should  be  taken  first,  such  as  earthenware,  iron,  wood,  tin, 
coal  and  chalk.  The  children  should  not  only  see  the  articles 
but  also  handle  them,  and  so  all  their  ideas  will  thus  be  accurate 
and  sound.  Furthermore,  let  them  name  any  of  the  uses  of  these 
objects,  and  this  will  show  to  them  the  reason  why  men  take  so 
much  trouble  to  get  them.  Receive  and  utilise  every  answer  that 
is  in  the  least  pertinent.  The  places  from  which  they  are  obtained 
might  be  described  with  the  aid  of  pictures,  and  the  distance  of 
each  place  could  be  given  by  estimating  the  time  it  would  take  a 
person  to  walk  there.  The  manner  of  bringing  them — train,  road, 
river,  or  ship — could  then  be  pointed  out. 

Such  a  course  as  this  will  necessarily  involve  lessons  and 
explanations  of  the  various  geographical  definitions,  and  these 
could  be  taught  realistically. 

The  productions  of  our  own  land  should  next  receive  attention 
— animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral.  These  could  subsequently  be 
compared  with  the  productions  of  other  countries,  the  better  known 
being  taken  first.  These  lessons  on  other  lands  will  require 
efforts  of  imagination,  which  will  thus  get  material  supplied  for 
fresh  constructive  efforts. 

Finally,  the  lessons  might  embrace  the  people,  their  trades 
and  occupations,  their  customs,  their  food,  clothing,  habits,  etc.  ; 
and  these  again  in  their  turn  should  be  compared  with  those  of 
other  countries. 

PIiANS. 

I.  Simple  Plans. — The  teacher's  first  task  is  to  give  the 
children  an  accurate  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  a  plan.  For  this 
purpose  a  number  of  simple  and  suitable  familiar  objects  should 
be  used  for  demonstration.  The  lesson  will  require  some  such 
graduation  as  follows,  commencing  with  the  dot  or  point,  and 
finishing  with  some  simple  geometric  solid  or  common  object.  It 
is  not  advisable  at  this  stage  to  bother  about  scale.  It  will  be 
sufficient  for  the  present  to  simply  preserve  a  general  proportion, 
the  children  aiding  by  suggesting  as  much  as  possible  the  draw- 
ing of  the  lines. 

A  plan  is  properly  the  representation  of  anything  drawn  on  a 


GEOGRAPHY. 


221 


plane,  and  in  a  special  sense  it  is  the  representation  of  a 
horizontal  section  of  anything.  The  teacher's  task  is  to  convey 
this  information  in  simple  language  and  by  suitable  demonstration. 
On  no  account  should  such  a  definition  be  given  to  the  class ;  but 
explanation  and  demonstration  by  the  teacher  should  be  followed 
by  a  simple  description  from  the  class.  It  is  advised  that  an  attempt 
be  made  to  develop  the  idea  by  some  such  method  as  follows  :  — 

1.  First  Ideas. 

{a)  The  children  take  their  slates  and  pencils.  Each  one  is  instructed  to 
make  a  dot  on  his  slate,  the  teacher  doing  likewise.  The  teacher  then 
brings  his  eye  in  a  direct  line  over  the  dot  on  his  slate,  and  invites  the 
class  to  do  likewise.  They  are  then  asked  to  describe  what  they  see — 
a  doL     That  is  called  the  p/an  of  a  dot. 

{d)  The  teacher  next  takes  a  knitting  needle  or  something  similar.  It  is  held 
in  a  horizontal  position,  and  is  brought  in  a  direct 

line  beneath  the  eyes  of  several  of  the  boys.     They        .  . 

are   again   invited  to   describe  what   they   see — a        A  B 

straight  line  (B).  That  is  called  the  plan  of  the 
knitting  needle.  The  teacher  draws  the  plan  on  the  B.  B. ,  and  directs 
the  class  to  draw  a  similar  plan  on  their  slates.  The  needle  is  then 
held  vertically,  and  the  same  process  is  followed.  This  time  they  see 
only  a  point  or  dot.  That  is  the  plan  of  the  needle  in  a  vertical 
position  (A). 

[c)  A  square  piece  of  paper  or  cardboard  is  next  taken. 

is  adopted.     The  square  is  first  held 

horizontally   in   a  direct  line  beneath 

the  eye  ;  the  class  is  invited  to  name 

what  they  see  ;  the  plan  is  then  drawn 

on  the  B.B.   by  the  teacher,  and  the 

class  are  instructed  to  draw  the  plan 

(A)  on  their  slates.     The  figure  (A)  is 

called  the  plan  of  the  square.     The  square  is  next  held  in  a  vertical 

position  ;  the  same  steps  are  gone  through,  and  the  plan  is  recognised 

as  the  figure  (B). 

(d)  Other  figures  should  be  treated  in  a  similar  way,  great  care  being  taken 

to  see  that  they  are  carefully  graded,  and  that  the  one  more  or  less 
naturally  suggests  or  leads  to  the  other.     Where  the  figure  has  two 
views,  or  two  simple  plans,  each  should  be  dealt  with, 
recommended  is  as  follows  : — 

>  2 


The  same  method 


B 


The  order 


Cube 


Square  Pnsm 


^  o  o 


sphere 


Cylinder 


5  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

2.  Transition  Objects. 

(e)  The  class  will  now  be  ready  to  proceed  to  the  ^adle  and  the  j^oor. 
Hitherto  the  objects  have  been  smaller  than  the  B.B.  Now  they  are 
probably  as  large  in  one  case,  and  certainly  larger  in  the  other.  There 
has  been  no  drawing  to  scale  up  to  the  present,  only  a  rough  proportion 
being  observed.  The  table  and  the  tioor  form  an  easy  and  suitable 
transition  from  smaller  to  larger  plans  ;  from  simple  to  more  complex 
objects  ;  from  scaleless  drawings  to  drawings  to  scale. 

n.  Flans  to  Scale. 

{a)  Draw  a  plan  of  the  school  fad/e.  To  the  children  it  is  obviously  too 
large  to  be  drawn  full  size.  It  must  be  drawn  smaller  than  its  real 
size.  Hence  arises  the  necessity  for  sca/e.  fkit  the  teacher  is  advised 
o"  ^        to  avoid  the  word  at  present.     We  can 

draw  it  half,  or  one-quarter,  or  one-twelfth 
its  real  size.  Let  a  couple  of  boys  come 
out  and  measure  the  table — one  its  length 
and  the  other  its  breadth.  Supposing  the 
dimensions  to  be  3  feet  by  2  feet,  and  it 
is  decided  to  draw  it  one-twelfth  its  real 
size  ;  some  members  of  the  class  will  be 
able  to  tell  you  that  there  are  twelve 
inches  in  a  foot  (if  not,  tell  them),  and 
that  therefore  every  foot  will  be  drawn  in 
the  plan  as  one  inch.  Hence  the  drawing 
will  be  3  inches  by  2.  Draw  the  plan  on  the  B.B.  ;  then  serve  out 
flat  geometric  rulers,  and  tell  each  membei-  of  the  class  to  draw  the  plan 
on  his  slate.  The  teacher  should  then  test  the  plans  by  sample  and 
correct  where  necessary. 
{b)  The  class  will  now  be  ready  for  the  word  scale.  Tell  them  that  such  a 
drawing  is  said  to  be  made  to  scale,  and  that  in  this  case  the  scale  is 
said  to  be  one  inch  to  the  foot.  Now  explain,  demonstrate,  question, 
and  exercise  the  class  until  they  can  grasp  such  representations  of 
scales  as  follow  : — 


1 

2 

3 

Ml                                        1                                        1                                        1 

1 

z 

.  3 

'^ 

5 

6 

Bl                 i                1                 1                1                1                 1 

2 

3 

f 

5         6 

7 

6 

9 

10 

<1          <Z 

CI 

1 

1 

1 

1           1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1            1 

Scales   of  Feet 

Draw  the  scale  A  upon  the  B.B.  Tell  the  class  it  represents  three  feet. 
Measure  it — it  is  3  inches.  Then  every  inch  represents  i  foot,  and  the 
scale  is  said  to  be  i  inch  to  the  foot. 

Next  draw  the  scale  B  on  the  B.B.  Tell  the  class  it  represents  6  feet. 
Measure  it — it  is  3  inches,  or  6  half-inches.  Then  every  half-inch 
represents  a  foot,  and  the  scale  is  said  to  be  «  half-inch  to  the  foot. 
Deal  with  C  in  the  same  way,  which  will  be  found  to  be  one  quarter  of 
an  inch  to  the  foot. 

The  class  should  now  txi  exercised  on  their  slates  in  drawing  easy  scales  to 
the  teacher's  dictation,  every  exercise  being  demonstrated  on  the  B.B. 
and  then  corrected  by  the  teacher. 

[c]  They  are  now  ready  for  the  next  step,  viz. ,  to  draw  a  plan  of  the  school- 
room floor.      Measure  up  the  floor.     Suppose  its  dimensions  to  be  40 


GEOGRAPHY. 


223 


feet  by  24  feet.  Let  the  class  suggest  the  scale.  If  unsuitable  scales 
are  suggested,  correct  and  explain  their  unsuitability.  Take  one  quarter 
of  an  inch  to  the  foot  as  your  scale.  Then  ask  the  class  to  give  you 
the  length  of  the  lines— 10  inches  by  6  inches.  Correct  and  explain  all 
errors.  Then  draw  the  plan  on  the  B.  B.,  and  afterwards  let  class 
draw  it  on  their  slates.  Suitable  exercises  should  follow  this  step,  as 
in  other  cases,  and  such  exercises  should  be  varied. 

(i)  The  dimensions  should  vary  with  the  same  scale. 

(2)  The  scale  should  vary  with  the  same  dimensions. 

(3)  Both  scale  and  dimensions  should  vary. 

m.  Plans  of  the  School  and  District.— The  class  should  now 
be  ready  to  draw  with  intelligence  those  plans  laid  down  for  them 
in  the  Code.  The  order  to  be  observed  naturally  suggests  itself, 
and  should  be  adhered  to,  viz. :  — 

1.  Plan  of  the  classroom. 

2.  Plan  of  the  school. 

3.  Plan  of  the  school  district. 

1.  Plan  of  the  Classroom. — It  will  be  advisable  in  every  case  for  the  teacher 
to  make  a  plan  of  his  (or  her)  own  classroom.  The  room  and  its  furniture 
should  be  measured  up  in  the  presence  of  the  class  ;  the  dimensions  should  be 
dictated  to  the  class  as  they  are  made,  to  be  written  on  their  slates,  and  then 
the  plan  should  be  drawn  on  the  B.B. ,   the  dimensions  being  given  by  the 


W 


W 


^    D 


-§^ 


■S-F 


m 


>r 


mw///////^^/^. 


v^%/4i^A 


w 


children.  The  children  should  then  be  directed  to  copy  the  plan  on  their  slates, 
learning  the  dimensions  at  the  same  time.  They  should  also  Ix;  taught  to  affix 
a  lettered  description.  It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  remind  the  teacher  that 
ornateness  and  superfluous  detail  should  be  omitted.  The  plan  must  be  simple, 
so  as  to  bring  it  within  the  understanding  and  slender  artistic  capacity  of  the 
children.     The  size  of  the  room  will  fix  the  scale. 


Lettered  description- 


W  equal  Walls. 
E       ,,      Doors. 
S  F       ,,      Stepped  Floor. 
C       , ,     Cuplx)ard. 
T      ,,     Table. 


(j  equal  Windows. 

F       ,,     I'loor. 

D      ,,     Dual  desks. 

V      ,,     Tobin  ventilator. 


224 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


2.  Plan  of  the  School. — This  can  be  dealt  with  in  exactly  the  same  way 
as  the  plan  of  the  classroom.     There  is  more  work,  but  the  process  is  exactly 


the  same.  The  drawing  should  be  neatly  done,  roughly  to  scale,  and  the 
points  of  the  compass  should  be  inserted  to  denote  the  aspect  of  the  school. 

3.  Plan  of  the  School  District. — The  process  is  still  the  same,  with  two 
exceptions  :  — 

(a)  The  scale   is   only   approximate,    and    is   roughly   guessed   very   often, 


If^alker  &■  Boutalisf. 


although  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  be  so.  The  teacher  could 
make  a  drawing  to  scale  from  some  copy,  and  then  dictate  the 
dimensions. 
{b)  The  scale  has  to  be  very  small  tecause  of  the  wider  area  covered,  and 
the  cardinal  directions  of  the  various  roads  and  streets  have  to  be 
known  and  shown. 

IV.  Maps  and  Flans. — Perhaps  the  chief  object  in  teaching 


GEOGRAPHY. 


225 


plans  is  to  give  the  scholars  an  intelligent  idea  of  the  map.  In 
this  sense  all  these  lessons  on  plans  are  preparatory  lessons  to 
map  drawing.  The  connection  between  the  two  must  be  pointed 
out  and  used,  and  subsequently  their  differences  demonstrated. 
Lead  gradually  up  to  the  more  difficult  conception  of  a  map,  and 
for  this  purpose  proceed  as  follows  : — 

1.  Draw  a  Plan  of  Some  Simple  Objects. — Lay  the  B.B.  on  the  school  table 
and  draw  the  plan  on  it  in  this  position — say  of  the  pencil  box,  or  a  slate  or  ink- 
stand;  or,  better  still,  draw  the  plans  of  all  of  them.  Then  place  the  B.B.  on 
the  easel.     The  children  see  the  point  at  once.     The  B.B.  should  really  lie  in  a 


horizontal  position.  Why  does  it  not?  Then  the  vertical  position  on  the 
easel  is  a  mere  matter  of  convenience,  to  enable  all  the  class  to  see  more  easily 
and  more  effectually. 

2.  Draw  a  Plan  of  a  Flat  Geographical  Model.— Get  some  clay  and  some 
water.  Spread  out  a  thin  surface  of  clay  in  a  shallow  trough.  Mark  out  the 
course  of  a  river  and  a  lake  in  the  clay,  and  pour  a  little  water  into  them. 
Again  lay  your  B.  B.  on  the  table  or  on  the  floor,  and  draw  the  plan  of  the 


226 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


model.  As  this  will  be  the  first  irregular  object  submitted  to  them  for  its  plan 
to  be  drawn,  a  little  more  assistance  may  be  required.  Then,  as  before,  raise 
the  B.B.  on  the  easel,  and  let  the  children  compare  the  object  with  its  plan. 
Represent  the  river  by  a  line  only,  as  in  that  form  they  are  found  on  the  map. 

3.  Draw  a  Plan  of  Some  Mountains. — Make  models  of  several  mountains 
upon  the  table,  in  sand  or  clay.  Place  the  B.B.  on  the  table  or  floor  again. 
Let  several  of  the  scholars  come  out,  look  straight  down  on  the  model,  and  then 
say  what  they  see.     A  little  more  illustration  may  be  necessary  here.     Give  as 


much  as  is  required.  Then  draw  the  plan,  and  raise  the  B.  B.  on  the  easel.  The 
model  and  the  plan  should  then  be  compared  by  the  class.  The  teacher  should 
now  sketch  the  methods  adopted  to  represent  mountains  in  maps,  and  should 
then  ask  the  class  to  point  out  some  mountain  on  a  school  map  which  could  be 
placed  in  front  of  the  class.  They  might  also  be  asked  to  point  out  any  lakes  or 
rivers  on  the  map. 

4.  Combined  Plan. — A  model  might  now  be  rapidly  made  showing  moun- 


t-iins,  river,  and  lake.     This  should  be  explained  in  the  same  way  as  the  other 
plans. 

5.  Insert  the  Points  of  the  Compass. — The  points  of  the  compass — N.,  S., 
E. ,  and  W. — should  now  be  fixed  upon  the  plan.  For  this  purpose  the  B.B. 
should  be  placed  on  the  table  or  floor  with  the  top  of  the  B.B.  pointing  the  same 


GEOGRAPHY. 


227 


way  as  the  N.  point  of  the  compass.  This  can  easily  be  done,  as  the  compass 
points  are  usually  painted  upon  the  ceiling  of  the  schoolroom.  If  not,  fix  the 
S.  point  first,  and  proceed  as  directed  in  the  lesson  upon  the  points  of  the  com- 
pass. 

6.  Lines. — These  might  now  be  taught  and  explained.  A  plan  of  the  table 
could  be  drawn  again,  and  lines  at  regular  intervals  could  be  drawn  on  the 
table  both  lengthwise  and  crosswise.  Their  use  could  then  be  indicated.  Num- 
ber them.  Let  the  class  imagine  that  the  table  represents  an  ocean.  The  lines 
help  to  define  a  position,  and  to  locate  it.  Apply  this  illustration  to  maps.  Be 
careful  to  explain  that  the  lines  are  mere  matters  of  convenience,  that  they  exist 
on  the  maps  and  globes  only,  and  are  not  found  on  the  earth  itself.  A  blank 
map  might  next  be  taken,  and  lines  drawn  upon  it,  and  their  use  will  be  obvious. 

7.  Scale  of  Miles. — The  class  will  easily  understand  now  that  maps  are 
drawn  to  scale.  The  scale  of  miles  affixed  to  every  map  might  now  be  pointed 
out,  and  some  useful  exercises  given. 

{a)  The  teacher  to  find  out  the  scale  to  which  the  map  is  shown.  Suppose 
the  line  showing  scale  of  miles  to  be  three  inches  long,  and  to  repre- 
sent 6  miles.  The  class  will  at  once  see  that  the  scale  is  half  an  inch  to 
the  mile. 

{6)  The  teacher  might  take  some  well-known  towns  and  measure  their  dis- 
tance from  London.  Assuming  the  scale  to  be  one  quarter  of  an  inch 
to  the  mile,  the  teacher  measures  the  distance  between  the  two  places 
and  finds  it  forty  inches.     The  distance  is  then  160  miles. 

V.  Difference  between  a  Map  and  a  Picture. 


^d%?  f 


228 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Map. 


1.  A  map  is  a  plan. 

2.  A  map  has  not  the  same  effects  of  light 
and  shade  as  a  picture. 

3.  A  map  shows  a  view  from  one  particu- 
lar position— from  above. 

4.  A  map  has  imaginary  lines,   such  as 
latitude,  longitude,  etc. 

5.  Roughly  speaking,  a  map  appeals   to 
the  eye  only. 


Picture. 


1.  A  picture  is  an  elevation. 

2.  Both  may  or  may  not  have  colour, 
but  the  picture  excels  in  the  other  respects. 

3.  A  picture  shows  things  and  places  as 
they  appear  to  the  eye  in  general  positions. 

4.  A  picture  has  no  such  lines. 

5.  A  picture  appeals  to  the  eye  and  to  the 
emotions.  Both  map  and  picture  may  ap- 
peal to  the  taste,  but  the  picture  will  do  so 
to  a  greater  degree. 


HO-W  TO  TEACH  THE  POINTS  OF  THE  COMPASS. 

1.  Fix  the  South. — Wait  for  a  suitable  day,  and  then  turn  to 
the  sun  at  mid-day.  Explain  south  as  meaning  the  sun  quarter, 
and  from  this  find  all  the  other  cardinal  points  in  the  following 
order  :  N.,  E.,  and  W.     Do  not  start  with  the  N. 

2.  Fix  the  Directions  in  the  Schoolroom. — Mark  them,  with 
their  initials,  on  the  floor  or  walls.  In  London  Board  schools 
they  are  painted  on  the  ceiling.  In  Glasgow  they  are  fixed  by 
means  of  brass  bars  inserted  in  the  granolite  at  the  school 
threshold. 

3.  North. — Show  how  the  top  of  the  map  is  N.  To  do  this 
lay  the  B.B.  on  the  floor,  and  mark  there  the  true  directions  thus 
found.  Then  place  the  B.B.  on  an  easel,  and  show  how  N.  comes 
to  be  at  the  top,  but  explain  that  N.  does  not  mean  up  higher 
than  the  rest ;  that  the  existing  arrangement  is  merely  one  of 
convenience. 

4.  Other  Points. — Explain  the  principle  of  naming  the  other 

points.  Describe  each  by  means 
of  the  two  bounding  it  ;  e.g., 
N.E.  means  some  spot  between 
the  N.  and  the  E.  It  is  both  N. 
and  E.,  and  is  therefore  said 
to  be  N.E.  So  with  the  other 
points,  N.W.,  S.W.,  and  S.E. 
Then  proceed  to  finer  differences 
such  as  W.N.W.  ;  i.e.,  between 
W.  and  N.W.  In  this  way 
work  out  all  the  points  of  the 
compass. 

5.  Compass. — The  compass  itself  should  now  be  introduced 


GEOGRAPHY.  229 

to  the  class.  Explain  the  word  compass  by  showing  that  its 
points  compass  the  circle,  and  the  earth  is  circular  in  shape.  The 
class  will  then  see  why  its  points  are  called  points  of  the  compass. 
Deviation  and  the  magnetic  qualities  of  the  compass  should 
form  a  later  lesson.  A  "  model  "  compass  might  be  built  by  the 
teacher  in  front  of  the  class,  and  with  a  little  preparation  and 
ingenuity  each  child  might  also  make  one  at  the  same  time. 

SHAPE  AND  SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH. 

I.  Its  Shape.— This  has  to  be  taught  to  children  in  Standard 
II.,  but  its  position  in  the  syllabus  is  a  mistake.  Children  are 
not  as  a  rule  capable  of  making  the  necessary  inferences  from  the 
only  facts  or  illustrations  that  can  be  presented  to  them.  The 
following  proofs  are  usually  given  : — 

1.  The  disappearance  of  ships  beneath  the  horizon. 

2.  The  earth's  shadow  on  the  moon. 

3.  The  shape  of  the  sun  and  the  moon. 

4.  The  circular  shape  of  the  horizon. 

5.  A  greater  aUitude  means  a  greater  horizon. 

6.  Going  "  round  "  the  world. 

The  railway  proof  is  omitted  as  being  beyond  the  average 
child,  and  more  or  less  this  is  true  of  some  of  the  other  proofs. 
Pictures  or  sketches  should  be  shown  in  illustration  of  each  proof. 

TL.  Its  Size.— The  size  of  the  earth  is  never  much  more  than  a 
mere  abstraction  to  the  young  children  of  Standard  II.,  whatever 
the  teacher  may  do  in  the  way  of  objective  teaching.  The  esti- 
mation of  size  is  defective  in  most  people,  and  in  children 
especially  so.  The  information  imparted  will  embrace  the  size  of 
the  circumference,  the  two  diameters,  the  total  area,  the  area  of  the 
land,  and  the  area  of  the  water.  The  earth  might  also  be  roughly 
compared  with  the  size  of  the  sun  and  moon.  But  time  will  be  the 
chief  aid  to  the  teacher,  and  the  best  impressions  of  any  large 
area  will  be  gained  by  stating  the  time  it  would  take  the  class  to 
walk  over  it.  The  size  of  the  various  objects  in  the  room  should 
be  estimated  and  measured  if  necessary.  The  estimates  could 
then  proceed  to  the  school,  the  street,  the  town,  and  so  on,  lead- 
ing finally  up  to  the  size  of  the  earth.  As  soon  as  you  get 
beyond  the  town  or  the  village,  you  transgress  the  bounds  of 
their  experience  ;  hence  any  reference  to  county,  country,  or  con- 
tinent is  not  recommended.  It  is  a  mere  attempt  to  measure  one 
abstraction  by  another.  If  railway  journeys  are  used  as  the 
standard,  they  are  the  experience   of  the   few,   and   are   rarely 


230 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


coincident.  Then  follows  the  necessary  correction  to  the  staple 
test  of  walking,  and  an  extra  and  superfluous  difficulty  is  thus 
added.  In  estimating  these  mighty  distances,  the  deepest  and 
most  intelligent  impression  is  made  by  an  illustration  or  ex- 
perience within  the  knowledge  and  grasp  of  all. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DEFINITIONS. 

So  far  as  possible,  these  should  be  taught  objectively.  A  free  use 
should  be  made  oi  models,  which  should  be  the  work  of  the  teacher 
or  some  member  of  the  class.  Pictures  and  diagrams,  of  which 
there  are  now  plenty  in  the  market,  should  be  brought  in  to 
assist.  In  every  case  the  teacher  is  advised  to  commence  the 
lesson  with  an  effort  to  develop  the  idea  of  the  particular  land  or 
water  division  to  be  defined,  and  to  furnish  plenty  of  examples  so 
that  the  definition  when  it  comes  should  be  the  work  of  the  class 
itself.  The  completeness  and  accuracy  of  the  definition  or 
description  given  by  the  children  will  be  the  measure  of  the 
teacher's  success.  Any  errors  should  lead  to  a  recapitulation  of 
that  portion  of  the  lesson  which  is  responsible,  and  such  recapitu- 
lations should  be  given  until  the  class  shows  a  sound  and  accurate 
idea  of  the  subject  of  the  lesson.  A  lesson  on  Capes  follows  as  a 
typical  illustration  of  the  method  of  giving  these  lessons,  and  the 
adoption  of  some  such  style  of  teaching  will  enable  the  young 
teacher  to  remove  that  dull,  mechanical,  rote  aspect  which  has 
been  so  characteristic  of  these  lessons  in  the  past. 


LESSON  ON  CAPES. 


Information. 

Teaching. 

I.  Develop  the  Idea  of  a  Cape. 
Definition. 

I.  By  the  aid  of  the  shallow  dish,  some 
clay  and  some  water,  demonstrate  the  idea 
of  a  cape.     Then  show  a  picture  of  a  cape 

A  cape  is  a  piece  of  land  sticking 

r"                                             

out  into  the  sea. 

I 

II.  Kinds  of  Capes. 

Capes    are    known    by    different 
names,  according  to  the  forms  which 

:  .^^RS« 

they  assume. 

—                    -     ^. 

I.  Cape. 

^ 

2.  Bill. 

3.  Naze  or  nose. 

Then  ask  the  class  to  give  a  definition 
of  a  cape. 

GEOGRAPHY. 
LESSON  ON  CkVES— continued. 


231 


Information. 


4.  Head. 

5.  Foreland. 

6.  Point. 

7.  Promontory. 

Examples  of  Capes. 

1.  Heads— Flamborough,  Spurn, 

2.  Ness— Naze,  Foulness,  Dunge- 
ness. 

3.  Foreland— N.  and  S.  Fore- 
lands. 

4.  Bill— Selsea,  Portland. 

5.  Point — Hartland,  Start,  Lizard. 

6.  Capes— Wrath,  Clear. 

III.  Formation. 

1.  By  waves,  which  wear  away 
the  land  from  high  to  low  water 
mark. 

2.  The  soft  rocks  wear  quickly ; 
the  hard  rocks  slowly.  Hence  we 
get  bays  where  the  rocks  are  soft, 
and  capes  where  they  are  hard. 

3.  By  the  action  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. The  air  has  a  wearing  effect 
upon  stones. 


Teaching. 


affix 


II.  The  teacher  should  take  some  clay 
and  rapidly  make  rough  small  models  of— 
I  and  4.     A  head  or  cape  {caput,  a  head). 

2.  Of  a  bird's  bill. 

3.  A  naze,  ness  (or  nose). 

These  should  all  be  affixed  to  the  edge  of 
the  mass  of  clay,  which  should  be  placed  in 
the  trough  or  dish,  and  water  poured  around 
the  clay. 

Another   bit  of  clay  should    now   be 
ed  before  or  in  front  of  the  mass  of 
clay.     This  will  illustrate  a  foreland. 

6.  A  point. 

7.  In  another  place  a  high  cape  might  be 
built  of  small  stones.  The  idea  oi prominent 
should  then  be  developed  by  contrast,  and 
the  name  promontory  given. 

The  class  should  be  led  to  observe  that 
all  the  names  embody  one  common  idea—oi 
projecting  or  sticking  out  like  a  head  does 
from  a  body,  a  nose  from  a  face,  etc.  The 
teacher  should  then  take  a  map  and  point 
out  these  capes  upon  the  map.  He  should 
then  enlarge  them  on  the  B.B.,  using 
coloured  chalks  to  mark  the  land  and  water, 
and  calling  attention  to  the  suitabiUty  of 
the  names. 

III.  Teach  experimentally. 

1.  Heap  up  some  sarul  in  the  dish  or 
trough.  Take  a  funnel  and  fill  it  with 
water.  Let  the  water  run  on  to  the  sand. 
The  class  to  note  and  state  the  result. 
The  sand,  being  soft  stone,  wears  or  washes 
away. 

2.  Repeat  the  experiment  with  stones. 
The  class  to  note  that  apparently  there  is 
no  wearing  away. 

3.  Refer  to  any  old  local  building.  If  the 
locality  has  none,  refer  to  a  well-known 
one.  Show  a  picture  of  it  if  possible.  The 
stone  of  the  building  is  worn.  Compare 
with  a  new  building,  which  is  seen  to  be 
not  worn.  Tell  them  that  the  air  has  worn 
away  the  old  building.  In  years  to  come, 
depending  upon  the  kind  of  stone,  it  will 
wear  away  what  is  now  the  new  building. 
Illustrate  by  a  reference  to  the  respective 
conditions  of  the  mortar  in  an  old  brick 
house  and  a  new  one. 


TTTT.T.S  AND  VAIJiEVS. 

These  should  be  taught  together,  for  each  is  the  natural 
complennent  of  the  other.  They  should  be  taught  objectively. 
For  this  purpose  a  clay  model  of  some  well-known  or  suitable 
district  should  be  made,  such  as  the  Downs  of  Kent  and  Surrey. 
The  map  should  afterwards  be  brought  into  use,  and  well-known 
ranges  of  hills,  with  their  adjacent  valleys,  should  be  pointed  out 


232  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

and  briefly  described.  In  mailing  out  the  notes  of  lessons  on 
such  a  subject,  the  model  should  be  sketched  and  the  map 
drawn. 

The  common  experience  of  the  children,  as  based  on  observa- 
tion, should  be  utilised.  Every  shower  of  rain  affords  material 
for  the  teacher.  The  wearing  effect  of  the  rain  upon  the  roads 
can  be  pointed  out,  or  rather  drawn  from  the  children.  A  little 
suggestive  questioning  will  suffice.  Rain  water  is  tolerably  pure  ; 
but  the  streamlets  running  from  the  roads  into  the  gutters 
are  dirty  or  muddy.  The  children  will  see  at  once  that  the 
rain  is  thus  wearing  away  the  road.  A  reference  to  the 
usually  worn  condition  of  ground  beneath  a  water  tap,  a  pump, 
or  a  spout  will  illustrate  the  same  thing.  A  reference  might 
also  be  made  to  the  beds  and  channels  of  rivers,  although, 
so  far  as  the  Code  is  concerned,  perhaps  this  reference  would 
be  a  little  too  premature.  On  such  concrete  examples  as 
these  the  imagination  might  fairly  be  set  to  work  to  conceive 
the  vaster  and  mightier  effects  as  displayed  in  the  formation  of 
valleys.  The  connection  between  hills  and  valleys  will  thus  be 
demonstrated. 

Other  forces  assist.  The  rain  and  the  river  have  their 
auxiliaries.  The  frost  hardens,  cracks,  and  loosens  the  surface 
material,  and  sometimes  acts  in  mightier  ways  still.  Snow  is 
another  agent.  As  frozen  rain,  it  does  much  the  same  work  as 
rain  in  swelling  the  volume  of  our  rivers  and  lakes  ;  in  wearing 
away  our  roads  ;  and  in  mountainous  districts  bringing  down 
masses  of  earth  and  rock  sometimes  in  its  avalanches.  In  its 
frozen  and  condensed  form,  layer  upon  layer  accumulating 
through  centuries,  it  forms  the  glacier,  which  is  a  mighty  manu- 
facturer of  valleys.  The  tides,  with  their  persistent  wash  of  the 
ebb  and  flow,  are  another  denuding  agency. 

Land  is  sometimes  elevated  by  internal  forces.  This  is  a 
positive  force  in  the  formation  of  hills,  and  instances  of  raised 
districts  {e.g.,  sea  beaches)  should  be  given. 

The  transition  from  hills  to  mountains  is  easy  and  natural. 
After  hills  and  valleys  are  thoroughly  understood,  lessons  on 
mountains  should  be  given.  These  lessons  may  be  given  from 
different  standpoints,  but  one  method  is  suggested  in  the  following 
sketch  : — 


GEOGRAPHY. 

MOUNTAINS. 


233 


Information. 


I.  Description. 

A  large  mass  of  earth  and  rock 
rising  above  the  common  level  of 
the  earth  or  adjacent  land ;  an 
elevated  mass  higher  than  a  hill. 

II.  Arrangement. 

1.  Range. 

2.  Chain. 

3.  Group. 

4.  Isolated  Heights. 


Teaching. 


I.  The  class  will  be  able  to  say  what  a 
mountain  is  from  their  lessons  on  hills  and 
from  their  general  knowledge.  Something 
like  what  is  opposite  will  be  given.  The 
teacher  should  work  up  the  answers  of  the 
class  into  some  such  form  as  that  given. 

II.  Explain  "  Range,"  and  compare  with — 
I  and  2.  "  Chain."     The  names  are  inter- 
changeable ;   e.g.,  Pennine  Chain  or  Pen- 
nine Range.     Point  out  other  ranges  on  the 
map — Devonian,  Cambrian. 

Show  a  clay  model  of  range,  or,  failing 
that,  sketch  a  range  on  the  B.B. 
3.  Point  to  the  Cumbrian  group,  and  con- 


Exampies. 

1.  Cambrian  Range, 

2.  Pennine  Chain. 

3.  Cumbrian  Group. 

4.  Wrekin. 

III.  Uses. 

I.  Health. 

{a)  Supply  pure  and  bracing  air. 

{b)  Protect  from  injurious  winds. 

(c)  Influence  temperature. 

{d)  Induce  exercise. 


trast  with  the  Pennine  Range.  The  boys 
will  see  that  the  arrangement  of  the  moun- 
tains settles  or  determines  the  class  name. 

4.  Point  to  the  "  Wrekin  "  in  Shropshire. 
Tell  class  mountains  are  rarely  isolated  or 
detached. 

III.  Question  these  facts  out : — 

I.  (a)  Ask  for  holiday  haunts — Seaside, 
Switzerland,  etc.  People  go  to  Switzerland 
for  good  air,  good  scenery,  etc.  Question 
out,  if  possible  ;  if  not,  tell  class  : — 

(i)  Air  is  pure  and  bracing  on  mountains, 
because  of  its  altitude. 

(2)  Because  far  removed  from  manufac- 
tures. 

(6)  and  (c)  Point  out  Cheltenham  and  Bath 


234 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

MOUNTAINS— coM^wwed. 


Information. 


2.  Wealth. 

(a)  Animal,  vegetable,  and  mine- 
ral. 

(b)  Supply  water  power, 
q.  Watersheds. 


Teaching. 


on  the  map.  Show  the  hills  around.  Tell 
of  the  higher  temperature.  Ask  or  tell  of 
the  prevailing  winds.  Class  will  see  that 
the  hills  keep  off  the  bad  winds. 

(d)  Give  a  little  information  about  moun- 
taineering. 

2.  A  reference  to  some  well-known   dis- 


A    watershed 
separating     two     or      more     river 
basins. 

4.  Political  uses, 
(a)  For  defence. 
(Z>)  Form  natural  boundaries. 


elevated  land  trict  will  easily  illustrate  this.  The  nature 
and  general  use  of  each  class  of  productions 
will  be  readily  drawn  from  the  class. 

3.  Take  a  blank  map  of  England  and 
sketch  in  the  Pennine  Watershed.  Explain 
shed.     (Refer  to  the  parting  of  the  hair.) 

4.  (a)  A  reference  to  the  N.W.  frontier  in 
India  ;  to  the  Alps  ;  to  the  Pyrenees  will 
illustrate  this. 

(6)  Pyrenees  a  good  example. 


A  later  or  more  advanced  lesson  on  mountains  might  deal  with 
their  origin.  The  subject  matter  of  such  a  lesson  would  be  most 
profitably  given  to  a  higher  class,  as  the  mental  demands  made 
are  considerably  greater  than  in  the  previous  lesson ;  and 
probably  at  least  two  lessons  would  be  required  to  deal  with  the 
subject  satisfactorily,  but  this  will  depend  upon  the  skill  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  235 

teacher.     The  subject  might  be  dealt  with  in  some  such  way  as 
follows : — 

Origin  of  Mountains. 

1.  Upheaval  or  Elevation. — At  successive  epochs  the  earth's 

crust  has  been  broken  up  and  elevated,  whilst  various  igneous 

rocks,  the  most  superficial  of  which  is  probably  granite,  were  lifted 

up  and  forced  into  the  cracks  of  the  disturbed  crust.     To  enforce 

this  fact  upon  the  class,  the  teacher  should  bring  the  following 

proofs  of  elevation  under  its  notice  : — 

(a)  The  existence  of  rocks  above  the  sea  level,  which  were  once  below  it. 
(d)  The  shells  of  shellfish,  etc.,  attached  to  rocks  now  above  the  high  water 
mark. 

(c)  The  beds  of  old  channels  getting  higher  till  they  at  last  appear  above  the 

surface  of  the  water. 

(d)  Raised  sea  beaches,  sometimes  several  hundred  feet  above  the  sea  level. 

(e)  Buildings  once  close  to  the  shore  now  miles  inland. 

The  teacher  should  take  a  map  and  point  to  places    where 

evidences  of  elevation  are  to  be  seen,  such  as — 

(a)  The  Essex  beach. 

(d)  The  south-west  of  England. 

[c]  South  of  South  America. 

(d)  The  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 
{e)  The  shores  of  the  Red  Sea. 

2.  Depression. — The  following  evidence  should  be  submitted :  — 

{a)  The  encroachment  of  the  sea  upon  the  land. 
{i>)  The  sinking  of  rocks  once  above  the  surface. 

(c)  The  gradual  deepening  of  channels. 

(d)  The  formation  and  existence  of  barrier  reefs  and  atolls. 
{e)  Submerged  forests. 

The  teacher  should  then  point  out  that  these  movements  of 

elevation  and  subsidence  seem  to  be  most  active  in  those  districts 

where  volcanic  and  earthquake  phenomena  are  most  frequently 

observed,  and  that  the  great  moving  force  is  the  heat  stored  up  in 

the  earth's  interior. 

The  teacher  should  again  turn  to  the  map  and  point  to  the  depressed  dis- 
trict in  the  south  of  Scandinavia  ;  to  the  submerged  buildings  along 
the  coast  of  South  Greenland  ;  and  to  the  submerged  forests  around 
our  own  shores.  He  might  also  tell  the  class  that  the  coast  of  South 
America,  along  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  and  in  the  south-east 
portion  of  the  continent,  is  now  being  slowly  submerged.  In  point- 
ing out  these  districts  of  elevation  and  depression,  he  might  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  they  are  often  earthcjuake  and  volcanic  dis- 
tricts. A  sketch  of  a  volcano  should  be  made  upon  the  B.  B, ,  and  its 
internal  heat,  the  subterranean  interformation  of  steam,  and  the  tre- 
mendous force  it  exerts,  should  be  explained.  Such  facts  will  make 
the  points  intelligible  to  the  class. 

The  effect  oi  denudation,  both  sub-aerial  and  marine,  might  be 


236  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

pointed  out,  whilst  the  work  of  the  various  agents  Hke  the  sun, 
cold,  frost,  the  atmosphere,  rain,  rivers,  and  the  sea  should  be 
explained. 

RIVERS. 

The  chief  points  to  be  noticed  in  giving  a  lesson  on  rivers  are 
here  enumerated,  but  it  is  not  suggested  that  every  lesson  should 
contain  all  the  information  specified.  The  time  allowed  and  the 
class  must  be  the  chief  determining  factors.  The  points  should 
always  be  introduced  in  the  order  recommended,  so  as  to  preserve 
the  proper  sequence  in  teaching — from  the  more  known  to  the 
less  known.  Children  may  see  a  river  day  by  day,  and  may  also 
see  its  various  uses  exemplified.  They  probably  know  little  or 
nothing  about  its  formation,  and  therefore  this  should  generally 
come  last.     We  will  take  the  Thames  as  an  example. 

1.  Uses. — It  is  a  great  commercial  highway  ;  ships  laden  with  goods  from 
all  parts  of  the  world  pass  up  and  down  it  continually.  Many  trades  are 
carried  on  along  its  banks,  whilst  with  its  steamboats  it  affords  a  pleasant 
means  of  communication  between  one  place  and  another.  It  contributes  to  the 
water  supply  of  the  people,  for  some  companies  draw  largely  from  it  ;  whilst 
the  fish  caught  at  its  mouth  and  in  its  upper  courses  increase  \h<tfood  supply. 
In  its  prettier  parts  it  is  even  used  as  a  residential  place,  for  many  house  boats 
are  now  found  upon  it.  It  also  affords  opportunities  for  swimming,  rowing, 
sailing,  punting,  and  fishing,  while  pleasure  parties  by  steam  boats  or  rowing 
boats  swarm  upon  it.  These  facts  show  its  recreative  use  to  be  one  of  the  most 
important. 

2.  Course. — Follow  the  course  from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  and  take  the 
opportunity  to  teach  right  and  left  banks,  shore,  bed,  channel,  tributary, 
mouth,  course,  basin,  estuary,  chief  towns,  bridges,  tunnels,  and  chief  ferries. 

3.  Formation. — ^Describe  the  circulation  of  water  on  the  globe — evapora- 
tion, condensation,  atmospheric  phenomena  (rain,  snow,  etc.),  the  percolation  of 
rain,  and  the  formation  of  springs.  For  other  rivers  it  may  be  necessary  to 
describe  the  formation  of  a  glacier,  and  to  show  that  some  rivers  take  their  rise 
Irom  them. 

THE  BUHiD  OF  A  COUNTRY. 

In  teaching  the  "build"  of  a  country,  first  make  the  class 
thoroughly  understand  that  the  term  means  the  "  make,"  "form," 
or  "  physical  construction  "  of  a  country.  It  will  thus  practically 
embrace  the  physical  features  of  that  country  ;  e.g.,  extent, 
length  of  coast  line,  chief  capes  and  bays,  rivers,  mountains, 
lakes  and  plains.  The  ordinary  method  of  teaching  this  branch 
of  the  work  is  bad.  Lists  of  capes,  bays,  islands,  rivers,  etc., 
taught  as  mere  strings  of  names,  with  an  utter  absence  of 
objective  and  realistic  teaching,  are  worse  than  useless.  Abstract 
numbers  to  express  extent  are  very  often  meaningless.  Some 
district  should  be  taken  as  a  standard,  and  other  countries  com- 


GEOGRAPHY.  237 

pared  with  it.  The  coast  line  should  be  taught  by  a  series  of 
descriptive  voyages  with  the  aid  of  the  map  and  B.B.  sketches. 
Mountains  might  be  compared  with  some  well  known  or  neigh- 
bouring hill.  Pictorial  illustrations,  where  possible,  should  be 
brought  into  requisition.  Boating  parties  could  traverse  the 
rivers  if  the  imagination  of  the  class  is  properly  appealed  to,  and 
stimulated  by  the  descriptive  powers  of  the  teacher.  Mountains 
could  be  climbed  in  the  same  way,  and  the  views  thus  revealed 
described.  The  narrative  element  thus  introduced  would  remove 
the  dulness  of  the  usual  lesson.  On  such  a  method  as  this  a  num- 
ber of  geographical  problems  would  naturally  suggest  themselves, 
and  would  aid  the  training  of  the  faculties  of  observation  and 
reasoning.  For  instance,  the  influence  of  "  build  "  upon  the 
health,  tastes,  sentiments,  and  industries  of  the  country  could  be 
deduced.  A  mountainous  people  are  of  an  independent  nature, 
and  generally  religious.  Why  ?  The  capacity  to  deal  with 
questions  of  this  sort  would  be  cultivated  and  developed  by  the 
methods  suggested.  Each  item  in  the  "  build "  would  thus 
become  a  central  objective  fact,  around  which  could  be  grouped 
a  number  of  vital  incidents  in  the  life  of  the  nation.  Such 
work,  it  is  true,  will  require  more  thought  and  preparation  than 
usual,  but  the  outlay  will  be  found  a  productive  one  for  all 
concerned. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  LATITUDE  AND  LONGITUDE. 

1.  Show  their  Necessity. — Take  a 
suitable  ball.  Make  a  mark  A  upon 
it,  and  then  ask  the  children  to  locate 
the  mark.  They  cannot.  Let  the  ball 
represent  the  earth,  and  suppose  this 
spot  to  be  placed  in  some  ocean  or 
desert.  They  cannot  locate  it  because  they 
have  no  starting  point  to  fix  its  relative 
position. 

2.  Find  a  Starting  Point. — For  this 
purpose  it  will  be  necessary  to  fix  the 
polar  points  and  to  draw  an  equator.       Proceed  as  follows  : — 

(a)  Fix  the  Polar  Points.  Take  a  piece  of  wire  of  suitable  length  and  run 
it  through  the  centre  of  the  ball.  Then  make  the  ball  revolve  on  this 
line,  which  is  called  an  axis.  Refer  to  the  axis  of  a  cart  wheel  as  an 
illustration.      The  ends  of  this  line  are  called  poles.      A  pole  means  a 


Fig. 


238 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


pivot,  and  the  class  will  see  the  appropriateness  of  the  name.  The 
children  can  fix  the  spot  A  now  by  reference  to  its  distance  from  either 
pole.     But  it  can  be  fixed  more  precisely  than  that. 


N.Pole 


[N.Pole 


Equiil-or 


(d)  Draw  an  Equator.  Compare  the  word  "  equal  "  with  equator,  and  tell 
the  class  the  line  is  so  called  because  it  divides  the  earth  into  two  equal 
parts.  The  point  A  can  now  be  better  located.  Its  distance  from  the 
equator  can  be  given  as  well  as  its  distance  from  the  poles.  Measure 
its  distance  above  the  equator.     This  distance  is  called  latitude. 

3.  Iiatitude. — The  class  can  now  define  latitude  as  distance 

from  the  Equator  north  or  south.     Draw  a  line  through  the  point 

|\j  PqI^  a  parallel    to    the    equator.      This 

is    called    a    parallel    of  latitude. 

There  can  be  any  number  of  them, 
as  BC,  DE,  etc.  Any  spot  we 
may  wish  to  locate  will  have  one 
of  these  parallels  of  latitude  drawn 
through  it,  so  as  to  fix  its  distance 
from  the  equator.  The  lines  go 
right  round  the  earth  parallel  with 
the  equator,  and  all  places  on  the 
O.Hole  same  line  have  the  same  latitude. 

Fig.  4.  4.  Degrees. — The  earth  is  25,000 

miles  round  the  equator,  which  is  divided  into  360  parts.  Each 
part  is  called  a  degree.  Make  the  class  quite  understand  that 
this  is  an  arbitrary  number,  and  it  might  have  been  100,  500,  or 
anything  else.  It  was  chosen  because  it  is  divisible  by  all 
numbers  from  i  to  12  except  7  and  11.  This  fact  should  be  told. 
A  little  problem  then  might  be  given  asking  how  many  miles 
there  are  in  a  degree  at  the  equator,  e.g.,  25,000  -f  360  =  69*39 
miles.     Then  let  the  class  compare  the  parallels  of  latitude  with 


GEOGRAPHY. 


239 


the  equator — they   decrease  as  they  reach  the  poles;   but  as 

every  circle  on  the  globe   is   divided   into   360°,  the  number  of 

miles  in  a  degn^ee  on  a  parallel  of  latitude 

varies  with  its  position.     At  London,  the 

number  of  miles  in  a  degree   on    London's 

parallel  of  latitude   is   about  Gg^io;   at  the 

poles  about  68-6g. 

The  reason  for  this  slight  variation  is  that  the 
earth  is  not  a  perfect  sphere.  It  is  flattened  a  little 
at  the  poles,  and  bulges  out  at  the  equator.  The 
difference  between  the  equatorial  diameter  and  the 
polar  diameter  is  26  miles. 


Fig.   5. 


M 

ll\ 

in 

'  '   •  '  '. 

\ 

e;d;c;b!a 

\\\\\ 

;  /  /  /'// 

^ 

iM^ 

5.  Longitude. — Ask  the  class  to  tell  you  how  far  east  or  west 
the  spot  A  is.  They  cannot,  because  they  again  have  no  starting 
place.  Suppose  we  fix  on  some  place 
as  a  starting  point — say  Greenwich. 
The  choice  again  is  an  arbitrary  one. 
Now  we  can  say  how  far  east  or  west  A 
is  from  Greenwich.  If  G  be  the  posi- 
tion of  Greenwich,  draw  a  line  round 
the  ball  passing  through  the  two  poles 
and  the  point  G.  This  line  is  called  a 
meridian,  because  all  places  along  it 
have  midday  at  the  same  time.  Draw  a  ^^'^-  ^• 
diagram  on  the  B.B.  illustrating  this.  All  the  places  a,  b,  c,  d,  e, 
along  the  meridian  N.S.  have  midday  at  the  same  time.  Meridian, 
then,    means     midday 

line.  Now  we  can  say 
that  the  point  A  is  so 
far  (measure  distance) 
west  of  Greenwich. 
This  line  through  Green- 
wich is  called  the  first  ■ 
meridian,  because  it  is 
the  point  fixed  upon  to  ~~ 
start  from.  The  class 
should  now  give  a  de- 
finition of  longitude. 

6.  Meridian  Lines. — Mark  points  along  the  equator  at  equal 
distances  (Fig.  6).  Through  these  points  and  the  poles  draw 
circles.      The  children  should  be  invited  to  notice  that  they  are 


240  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

not  parallel,  hence  there  are  no  parallels  of  longitude.      The  circles 

are  called  meridians  for  the  reason  given.      These  meridians  are 

also  divided  into  360°,  but  as  they  are  all  the  same  size,  a  degree 

on  a  meridian  of  longitude  always  contains  the  same  number 

of  miles. 

7.  How  to  find  Latitude  and  Ijongitude. — The  position  of  A 

will  be  fixed  by  drawing  through  it — 

fSj  {a)  A  parallel  of  latitude  BAC. 

{b)  A  meridian  of  longitude  NAS. 

The  intersection  of  these 
two  lines  at  A  locates  it.  The 
spot  A  is  so  many  degrees  W. 
longitude,  and  so  many  degrees 
N.  latitude.  But  when  a  ship 
is  at  sea,  it  is  not  possible  to 
measure  this  distance,  as  chil- 
dren usually  understand  the 
word  measure.  Explain  the 
method  adopted  as  follows : — 
{a)  Latitude. — This  is  fixed  by  the  relative  position  of  the 
polar  star  by  night,  and  by  the  altitude  of  the  sun  by  day. 

1.  By  Night.     Tell  the  class  that  the  pole  star  is  always  the  same  number  of 

degrees  above  the  horizon  as  the  observer  is  removed  from  the  equator, 
so  that  the  height  of  the  pole  star  gives  the  latitude  of  the  observer. 
Now,  the  height  of  the  pole  star  can  be  measured.  (Reserve  the 
method  how  for  another  lesson.)  If  a  person  travelled  10°  northward, 
the  polar  star  would  appear  to  rise  10°. 

2.  By  Day.      The  measurement  is  most  often  made  by  day,  and  then  the 

altitude  or  height  of  the  sun  is  used  instead  of  the  pole  star. 

(h)  Iiongitude. — All  ships  carry  chronometers.  These  keep 
accurate  Greenwich  (the  starting  place)  time.  Suppose  the 
height  of  the  sun  shows  it  to  be  10  a.m.  where  the  ship  is,  when 
it  is  3  p.m.  by  the  chronometer.  A  distance  of  15°  is  allowed  for 
each  hour,  because  360°  -r  24  hours  =  15°  for  each  hour.  Then 
the  longitude  is  15°  for  every  hour's  difference  in  the  two  times  ; 
i.e.,  it  is  5  X  15°  =  75°  W.  longitude.  The  longitude  is  W.,  because 
the  time  by  the  sun  is  in  advance  of  the  time  by  the  chronometer. 
Again,  suppose  the  sun  to  show  it  to  be  4  p.m.  and  the 
chronometer  10  a.m.  Then  the  longitude  6  x  15°  =  90°  E., 
because  the  time  by  the  sun  is  after  the  time  by  the  chronometer. 
Give  plenty  of  examples,  and  do  not  forget  to  tell  the  class  that 
all  these  lines  are  imaginary. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


24? 


A  subsequent  lesson  should  be  given  showing  the  method  of 
taking  observations  in  greater  detail. 

A  USSSON  ON  DAV  AUTD  NIGHT. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  more  frequently  recurring  lesson  in  the 
whole  range  of  school  geographical  teaching  than  the  above.  It 
figures  frequently  in  examination  papers,  and  finds  a  place  in 
nearly  every  scheme  of  lessons  in  geography.  These  two  facts 
are  a  practical  way  of  emphasising  its  importance.  Furthermore, 
the  lesson  is  not  an  easy  one  for  young  teachers,  hence  it  has 
been  thought  advisable  to  give  it  in  detail. 


Matter  and  Material. 


I.  LIGHT  AND  DARK. 

Demonstrate  this  with  a  globe  and 
a  candle  lamp. 


Globe  to  represent 
the  earth. 


Candle  to  represent 
the  sun. 


Method. 


1.  I,  The  class  should  observe  that  half 
the  gk)be  is  lighted,  and  half  not  lighted ; 
i.e.,  in  the  dark. 

2.  Turn  the  globe  into  other  positions, 
and  let  the  boys  observe  that  the  result  is 
the  same — one  half  in  the  light  and  one 
half  in  the  dark. 


The  earth  turns  round  on  its  axis 
once  in  24  hours,  one  half  being 
turned  towards  the  sun  {day)  and 
one  half  being  turned  away  from  the 
sun  (night). 

II.  SUNRISE  AND  SUNSET. 

The  interval  of  light  gives  us  day. 

The  interval  of  darkness  gives  us 
night. 

Sunset,  sunrise,  midday,  mid- 
night, are  other  points  in  the  course 
of  the  daily  motion  of  the  earth. 


3.  Next  mark  any  spot  on  the  surface  of 
the  globe.  Now  revolve  the  globe  slowly 
until  that  spot  takes  up  its  original  position. 
They  will  then  see  that  every  spot  is  for 
half  its  course  in  tlie  ligiit  and  for  half 
its  course  in  the  dark. 

The  light  part  equals  day. 

The  dark  part  equals  night. 

II.  Mark  any  spot  A  on  the  dark  side  of 
the  earth.  Then  slowly  revolve  the  globe 
round  its  axis,  calling  attention  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  mark— 

1.  When  it  is  just  quitting  the  dark  part 
to  come  into  the  light — break  of  day,  dawn, 
sunrise. 

2.  When  it  is  halfway  round  the  light 
portion;  i.e.,  when  it  is  right  opposite  to 
the  candle — noon  (explain),  midday. 

3.  When  it  is  just  quitting  the  light  for 
the  dark — sunset. 


242 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Matter  and  Material. 


III.  MOVEMENTS. 

1.  Apparent  Movements. 

The  sun  seems  to  rise  every 
morning,  travel  across  the  heavens 
from  east  to  west,  and  then  set. 
This  seems  to  cause  day  and 
night. 

2.  Real  Movements. 

The  earth  turns  round  on  its  axis 
once  every  24  hours,  and  causes  the 
sun  to  appear  to  move. 

lY.  VARIATIONS  IN  DAY  AND 
NIGHT. 

1.  In  the  summer  the  days  are 
long  and  the  nights  are  short. 

2.  In  the  winter  the  nights  are 
long  and  the  days  are  short. 

3.  In  spring  and  autumn  the  days 
and  nights  are  more  equal  in 
length. 


Method. 


4.  When  it  is  halfway  round  the  dark 
part;  i.e.,  farthest  away  from  the  sun — 
midnight. 

The  course  of  the  sun  from  sunrise  to 
sunset  gives  us  day;  from  sunset  to  sun- 
rise, night. 

III.  I.  Refer  to  a  railway  train  ;  the  trees, 
etc.,  seem  to  be  running  away  from  the 
passengers. 

2.  If  two  trains  are  in  a  station,  and  one 
is  moving  out  whilst  the  other  is  stationary, 
a  person  looking  out  of  the  window  of  a  car- 
riage of  the  stationary  train  on  the  side 
towards  the  moving  train,  will  fancy  his 
train  is  moving  and  the  other  not. 

3.  In  rising  in  a  balloon,  the  earth  seems 
to  sink  away  from  you. 

These  are  all  apparent  motions.  The  real 
motion  is  understood  in  each  case.  Apply 
this  to  the  earth,  which  turns  round  on  its 
own  axis,  and  thus  causes  the  sun  to  appear 
to  move. 

IV.  Reference  has  hitherto  been  made  to 
the  days  and  nights  as  though  they  were 
always  of  equal  length— twelve  hours.  This 
is  incorrect,  and  the  information  given 
opposite,  which  expresses  the  real  case,  can 
easily  be  obtained  by  questioning. 

The  explanation  of  the  phenomena   ex- 
pressed in  IV.  (i,  2,  and  3)  is  as  follows : — 
I      By  observation  the  class  should  notice — 
j      I.  The  Arctic  Circle  rotates  entirely  in 
the  dark,  hence  it  is  winter  at  the  North 
Pole,  and  constant  night.     It  is  beyond  the 
I  direct  light  and  heat  of  the  sun. 


The  earth's  axis  is  inclined  to  its 
orbit  at  23^°,  and  this  will  explain 
the  difference  in  the  lengths  of  the 
days  and  nights  at — 


Explain  orbit,  and  draw  a  diagram  illus- 
trating. 

2.  The  Antarctic  is  the  reverse,  being 
wholly  within  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun. 
Hence  it  is  summer  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. 


GEOGRAPHY. 


243 


Matter  and  Material. 


1.  Different  latitudes  at  the  same 
time. 

2.  The  same  latitudes  at  different 
times. 

In  summer  any  given  place  is 
turned  more  directly  towards  the 
sun's  rays ;  in  the  winter  it  is 
turned  more  directly  away  from  the 
sun's  rays. 

Twilight  might  be  deferred  to  an- 
other lesson. 

N.B.  —  The  student  might  afterwards 
prepare  a  lesson  on  the  seasons  on  similar 
lines. 


Method. 


3.  The  farther  we  proceed  from  the  North 
Pole  to  the  Equator,  the  nearer  we  ap- 
proach the  sphere  of  light,  until,  at  the 
Equator,  we  have  the  days  and  nights  equal 
again.  The  result  will  be  that  the  days 
lengthen  as  ive  get  nearer  the  Equator. 

4.  Now  proceed  from  the  Equator  to  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  and  the  region  of  light 
increases  ;  i.e.,  the  amount  of  light  is  more 
and  longer,  giving  us  longer  days. 

5.  The  class  should  again  be  asked  to 
notice  that  it  is  winter  in  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  that  on  any  given  parallel 
of  latitude  (say  Cancer)  more  of  that  parallel 
is  in  the  dark  than  in  the  light ;  and  this  is 
true  of  all  parallels  until  we  reach  the 
Equator ;  i.e.,  the  nights  are  long  and  the 
days  short  in  the  winter. 

6.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  it  is 
summer.  There  the  greater  portion  of  any 
given  parallel  is  in  the  light  (day) ;  i.e.,  the 
days  are  longer  in  summer  and  the  nights 
shorter. 

Hence  the  days  and  nights  vary  in  length 
at  different  latitudes  at  the  same  time. 

To  prove  they  vary  in  the  same  latitude 
at  different  times,  take  any  town  (London). 
Appeal  to  the  experience  of  the  class.  Days 
and  nights  do  vary  at  different  times.  Why  ? 
Because  the  position  of  London  with  re- 
spect to  the  sun  is  different  in  the  summer 
and  winter.. 

This  might  be  illustrated  by  a  B.B.  dia- 
gram. 

This  lesson  might  be  well  illustrated 
with  the  tellurian  or  the  terrestrial  time 
globe,  if  they  should  be  accessible. 


CIjIMATE. 

1.  Meaning^. — In  dealing  with  climate  the  teacher  should  com- 
mence by  giving  the  class  a  clear  and  accurate  idea  of  what  the 
term  now  embraces.  For  this  purpose  he  should  invite  definitions 
or  descriptions  from  the  class,  and  seek  to  gather  up  all  the 
correct  items  into  one  statement.  He  might  assist  by  giving 
the  derivatiort  (klima)  and  its  meaning.  He  might  point  out 
that  the  word  really  means  a  slope  or  inclination,  and  that  the 
inclination  referred  to  is  the  obliquity  of  the  sun's  rays.  But 
the  term  embraces  more  than  this,  including  as  it  does  not  only 
the  temperature  of  a  district,  but  its  meteorological  conditions 
generally. 

2.  Latitude.— (a)  The  ejfect  of  the  sun's  rays  is  greatest  where 
they  fall  perpendicularly  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  diminishes 
as  their  obliquity  increases. 


244  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

(b)  The  surface  covered  by  the  oblique  rays  is  greater  than  that 
covered  by  the  perpendicular  rays. 

(c)  There  is  more  absorption  in  the  oblique  rays,  becailse  the 
sun  has  to  traverse  more  air  particles,  and  as  a  result  more  is 
absorbed.  Both  these  facts  are  clearly  demonstrated  in  Fig.  i  of 
the  lesson  on  climate  which  follows. 

(d)  The  slope  is  important  ;  to  the  south  it  is  warmer  than  to 
the  north.     This  is  true  of  all  latitudes. 

These  are  the  main  points  which  the  teacher  will  have  to  put 
before  the  class  to  give  a  clear  conception  of  the  influence  of  lati- 
tude on  climate. 

3.  Slevation. — What  is  the  influence  of  elevation  ?  The 
teacher  must  point  out  that  the  higher  we  ascend  the  colder  it 
becomes.  Thus  altitude  has  the  same  effect  as  latitude.  But  there 
are  modifying  circumstances,  and  the  teacher  must  be  careful  to 
point  them  out.  He  must  make  the  class  understand  that  the 
actual  temperature  of  the  air  depends  not  so  much  upon  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun  as  upon  the  radiation  from  the  heated  surface  of  the  earth. 
He  must  be  supplied  with  suitable  illustrations  showing  that  the 
mountains  may  keep  off  hot  or  cold  winds  ;  they  may  chill  the 
winds  with  their  snow  caps ;  they  may  bring  down  the  rain  by 
condensing  the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  ;  they  may  lie  across, 
or  in  a  line  with  the  rain-bearing  wind.  These  facts  make  the 
rainfall  an  important  factor  in  climate.  The  addition  of  the  snow 
chills,  hence  the  nature  of  the  surface  is  important ;  and,  as  they 
influence  or  intercept  winds,  the  prevailing  winds  are  of  conse- 
quence ;  whilst  it  has  already  been  shown  that  the  direction  of 
their  slopes  is  a  contributing  element.  Let  us  consider  some  of 
these  influences  in  greater  detail. 

4.  The  Nature  of  the  Soil. — The  teacher  will  need  to  bring 
the  following  facts  under  the  notice  of  his  class  : — 

(a)  A  sandy  desert,  a  tract  of  luxuriant  vegetation,  an  expanse  of  water 
radiate  heat  in  very  different  degrees.  The  desert  raises  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  much  ;  the  water  little.  These  facts  should  be  illus- 
trated by  a  reference  to  the  great  heat  of  well-known  deserts,  and  to  their 
extremes  of  temperature  sometimes.  A  reference  to  summer  visits  to  the 
seaside,  and  a  possible  reference  to  land  and  sea  breezes,  would  emphasise 
the  more  equable  temperature  of  water  as  compared  with  land. 

(d)  A  newly  ploughed  field  both  absorbs  and  radiates  heat  much  more 
rapidly  than  a  grass  field. 

{c)  But  good  absorbers  are  good  radiators.  Hence  the  desert  cools 
quickly  ;  water  does  not.     Why  ? 

1.  Heat  is  diffused  through  a  larger  mass  owing  to  the  depth  to  which  solar 

radiation  penetrates. 

2.  Owing  to  vertical  and  horizontal  currents  to  great  depths. 


GEOGRAPHY.  245 

5.  Proximity  to  the  Sea. — We  have  maritime  climates  and 
continental  climates,  the  temperature  of  the  former  being  more 
equable.  A  few  statistics  might  be  quoted  in  proof  of  this;  e.g., 
the  climate  of  England  might  be  compared  with  that  of  Canada  or 
Russia,  the  comparison  being  restricted  to  parts  lying  in  the  same 
latitude.  Again,  oceanic  currents,  both  hot  and  cold,  are  great  in- 
fluences, and  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  North  Polar  current  might 
be  given  in  illustration.  The  amount  of  the  evaporation  is  in- 
fluenced by  the  proximity  of  the  sea,  and  this  leads  us  on 
naturally  to  the  rainfall. 

6.  Rainfall. — The  points  here  to  be  noticed  are  :  — 

[a)  Coast  countries  have  more  rain  than  inland  countries. 

[b)  Mountain  regions  are  wetter  than  the  plains. 

[c)  The  tropics  have  more  rain  than  other  zones. 

Examples  in  illustration  should  be  given  in  each  case. 

7.  Prevailing"  Winds. — Atmospheric  currents  exercise  a  greater 
influence  upon  climate  than  oceanic  currents.  Illustrate  by  a 
reference  to  our  own  prevailing  winds— our  warm  S.W.  and  our 
cold  E.  winds.     Explain  the  cause  in  each  case. 

8.  Local  Circumstances. — -All  the  influences  enumerated  may 
be  more  or  less  modified  by  local  circumstances,  but  the  teacher 
will  not  experience  much  difficulty  with  some  of  these,  as  they  are 
almost  self-explanatory.  Such  facts  as  the  following  are  included : — 

{a)  The  amount  of  snowfall. 

{b)  Bogs  and  marshes  cool  the  air,  and  generate  fogs. 

{c)  Clay  soils  retain  the  moisture,  and  have  the  same  effects  as  marshes. 

{d)  The  relative  duration  of  summer  and  winter. 

[e)  Some  kinds  of  marshes  abound  in  malarious  and  other  exhalations  un- 
favourable to  health. 

{/)  Large  tracts  of  forests  often  produce  the  same  results. 

[g]  The  clearing,  drainage,  and  cultivation  of  land  generally  have  favour- 
able effects  on  climate.  On  the  other  hand,  a  too  complete  removal 
of  forests  may  prevent  the  deposition  of  moisture  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  cause  droughts  (W.  I.  Isles)  or  even  floods  (valley  of  Po). 

The  teacher  should  be  prepared  to  furnish  examples  in  illus- 
tration of  every  one  of  these  phenomena. 

9.  Finally  the  class  might  have  the  distinction  between  weather 
and  climate  pointed  out.  Weather  is  daily  ;  climate  embraces  an 
average  effect  extending  over  many  years. 

In  the  teaching  of  climate  too  much  must  not  be  crowded  into 
one  lesson.  The  subject  is  far  too  wide  for  that.  It  will  be  suffi- 
cient if  two  or  three  headings  are  taken  up  and  dealt  with 
thoroughly  in  each  lesson,  as  in  the  subjoined  instance,  which 
deals  only  with  latitude, 


246  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

A  LESSON  ON  CLIMATE  AS  INFLUENCED  BY  LATITUDE. 


Information. 


Teaching. 


Latitude.  It  is  assumed  that  the  class  knows  the 

.  meaning    of   the    word    climate    as    it    is 

1  hiG    determines    the   amount  of  generally  used, 
heat  received  from  the  sun.  \      Facts  i,  2,  3,  and  4  can  be  elicited  by 

T     Plare«  npprpr  thp   pmiatnr   arp    q^'estwmng.     They  could  be  explamed  by 

I.  riaces  nearer  tne  equator  are  ,  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  following  diagrams,  which 
warmer  than  those  more  remote.        |  should  be  drawn  upon  the  B.B.  :— 


SUN 


Fig. 

2.  The  day  is  warmer  than  the 
night. 

3.  Summer  is  warmer  than  winter. 

4.  Mid-day  is  warmer  than  morn- 
ing or  evening. 

A.  Temperature. 

By  this  term  is  meant  the  different 
degrees  of  heat  and  cold. 

{a)  Annual  range.      This  is  cal- 
culated on  the  average  of  the  vary-  1 
ing    temperature    of    the    different  1 
seasons  spread  over  several  years.  | 

{h)  Daily  range.  By  this  is  meant 
the  difference  between  the  tempera- 
ture of  day  and  night. 

B.  Places  having  the  same  lati- 
tude may  have  different  climates, 
e.g.  :— 


Let  A  and  B  represent  different  bundles 
of  equal  rays;  bb  is  longer  than  an,  hence 
an  equal  amount  of  heat  is  spread  over  a 
greater  space.     See  Fig.  5  also. 

Let  the  light  portion  represent  day  and 
the    shaded    portion    night.        The    light 


Place. 


Edinboro 
Moscow 


Lati- 
tude. 


Average  '  Average  I 
Summer    Winter   T>_„~p 
Tempera-Temiiera-^""^- 
ture.     i     tnre. 


38° 
15 


Fig.  2 

portion  is  turned  towards  the  sun,  the  dark 
portion  away  from  the  sun.  As  the  Earth 
turns  round  upon  its  axis  once  in  every 
twenty-four  hours,  and  as  each  half  is 
alternately  exposed  to  the  sun  for  twelve 
hours  (day),  and  turned  away  from  the  sun 
twelve    hours    (night),    the    difference    in 


GEOGRAPHY.  247 

LESSON  ON  CLIMATE  AS  INFLUENCED  BY  LATITVDE— continued. 


Information. 


Teaching. 


C.  If  the  earth  were  entirely 
covered  with  water,  or  consisted 
entirely  of  land,  then  the  climate  of 
any  part  would  be  determined  by 
its  latitude,  and  therefore  all  places 
having  the  same  latitude  would 
have  the  same  climate. 


temperature   between   day   and   night  will 
j  be  obvious. 

Tell  the  children  that  the  sun  is  never  so 
I  high  in  the  sky  during  the  winter  as  it  is  in 
!  the  summer.  Appeal  to  their  experience, 
I  and  ask  if  any  of  them  have  ever  noticed  this 
I  fact.      Then   sketch   Fig.  3  in  illustration. 

Fig.  4  will  explain  the  reason  of  this,  and 

should  be  carefully  prepared  by  the  teacher 

for  this  purpose. 


Midsummer  Son  af  Noon   Altitude  60* 


lidw'inter  Sunat  Noon    ^ 
Horizon- 


AUitude  15** 
Horizon 


Fig.  3. 


WINTER 


D.  Case  of  the  Equator. 

The  days  and  nights  are  equal 
all  the  year,   hence — 

1.  The  heat  received  by  day,  and 
that  lost  by  radiation  at  night,  are 
practically  constant. 

2.  As  a  result  there  is  no  marked 
difference  between  summer  and 
winter  temperature, 

3.  Hence  there  is  no  range  of 
ternperature. 


SUMMER 


At  sunrise  and  sunset  the  sun  is  near  the 
horizon,  and  a  pencil  of  rays  (aa)  is  spread 
over  a  much  greater  space  than  an  equal 
pencil  (bb)  at  noon.  At  sunrise  and  sunset 
there  is  also  greater  thickness  of  atmo- 
sphere for  the  heat  rays  to  pass  through, 
and  consequently  more  absorption  of  heat 
by  the  atmosphere. 

A.  Write  A,  a,  b  upon  the  B.B.,  and 
have  them  learnt  by  the  class. 

B.  Then  explain  and  illustrate  them  by 
a  reference  to  table  B.  Write  this  table 
on  the  B.B.  Have  a  map  of  Europe  put 
up  heforp  the  glass,  and  Igt  the  places  be 


248 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD, 


LESSON  ON  CLIMATE  AS  INFLUENCED  BY  l^AriTVDE— continued. 

_v  Be  Midday 


Hori3on 

Fig.  5. 


Information. 


E.  1.  Insular  Climate. 

(a)  The  range  is  small. 

(b)  The  climate  is  temperate  be- 
cause water  surfaces  tend  to  equalise 
temperatures. 

2.  Continental  Climate. 
A  climate  of  extremes  and  great 
range  of  temperature. 


Teaching. 


pointed  out.  The  parallel  of  latitude  should 
be  traced  from  Edinburgh  to  Moscow  to 
show  that  their  latitudes  are  the  same. 

C  and  D.  Explain  these. 

E.  Elucidate  E  by  a  reference  to  B. 


NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  TRADE  WINDS. 

In  the  teaching  of  winds  three  lessons  stand  out  as  of  para- 
mount importance — land  and  sea  breezes,  trade  winds,  and 
monsoons,  As  considerations  of  space  prevent  the  giving  of  these 
three  lessons  in  detail,  one  only,  that  on  trade  winds,  is  given  as 
^  type  of  the  method  to  be  adopted.  The  student  should  practise 
himself  in  writing  similar  notes  on  the  other  two. 


Information. 


I.  Introduction. 

I.  Air,  when  unequally  heated, 
forms  currents,  because  heated  air 
expands  and  ascends,  and  the 
colder  air  flows  in  to  take  its  place, 


Teaching. 


I.  This  lesson  should  be  one  of  a  series. 
Lessons  on  winds  generally,  and  one  on  land 
and  sea  breezes,  should  have  preceded  it. 

The  teacher  should  briefly  recapitulate 
the  truths  taught  in  those  lessons. 

The  class  will  discover,  before  the  lesson 
finishes,  some  similarity  between  this  lesson 
and  the  lessop  on  l^nd  gnd  se^  brggze^, 


GEOGRAPHY. 
LESSON  ON  TRADE  Wl'NDS— continued. 


249 


Information. 


2.  Land  and  sea  breezes  are  due 
to  the  varying  temperature  of  the 
air. 

II.  Origin. 

1.  The  air  at  the  equator,  being 
the  most  heated,  ascends,  and  begins 
to  move  towards  the  higher  latitudes, 
and  in  the  direction  of  the  poles. 

2.  At  about  30^  (N.  or  S.)  this 
current  of  air  reaches  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  since  it  has  left 
the  air  at  the  equator  more  rarefied, 
part  of  it,  mingled  with  the  air  from 
the  poles,  returns  to  the  equator, 
while  part  continues  its  course  to 
the  poles. 

III.  Direction. 

1.  The  equatorial  current  or  upper 
trade  wind. 

(a)  S.W.  in  N.  hemisphere. 
(6)  N.W.  in  S.  hemisphere. 

2.  The  polar  current  or  lower 
trade  wind. 

(a)  N.E.  in  N.  hemisphere. 
(6)  S.E.  in  S.  hemisphere. 

The  trade  winds  are  deflected  to 
the  right  in  the  N.  hemisphere,  and 
to  the  left  in  the  S.  hemisphere. 

lY.  Locality. 

I.  In  N.  hemisphere, 
(a)  Belt  of  equatorial  calms  about 
400  geographical  miles  broad. 
{b)  Region  of  N.E.  trade  winds. 
(1)  In  Atlantic  8°  to  29°  N.  lat. 
(?)  Ip  Pacifi9  2°  to  25°  N.  Jat. 


Teaching. 


II.  I.  Illustrate  by  a  reference  to  the  use 
of  a  fire  in  a  room  as  a  means  of  ventilation 
as  well  as  warming.  A  further  illustration 
might  be  found  by  a  reference  to  the  origin 
of  land  and  sea  breezes.  To  show  that 
warm  air  expands  and  ascends  do  the  air- 
bag  experiment,  and  refer  to  the  ascent  of 
balloons. 

2.  Tell  this,  and  illustrate  as  in  III., 
I  and  2. 

III.  I  and  2.  Point  out  on  the  map  the 
latitudes  referred  to.  Then  sketch  the 
following  illustration  on  the  B.B. 


The  air  pressure  at  A  is  higher  than  at 
B,  hence  as  air  flows  from  the  region  of 
high  pressure  to  that  of  low  pressure,  a 
current  flows  from  A  to  B.  This  is  the 
equatorial  current,  or  upper  trade  wind,  or 
counter,  or  return  trade  wind. 

From  diagram  show  there  must  be  a 
greater  weight  of  air  over  A  than  over  F. 
Hence  the  movement  from  A  to  F. 

But  the  barometer  at  B  soon  stands 
higher  than  barometer  at  equator,  because 
of  the  flow  of  air  in  this  upper  current. 
Hence  the  movement  from  B  to  the  equator. 
This  is  the  polar  current  or  lower  trade 
wind. 

If  the  earth  were  stationary  these  two 
currents  would  flow  constantly  due  N.  and 
S.  But  the  trade  winds  are  E.  winds. 
Why? 

(1)  The  earth  rotates  from  W.  to  E., 
and  the  rate  of  rotation  is  greatest 
at  the  equator,  and  grows  less  as 
we  approach  the  poles. 

(2)  The  air  has  consequently  its  maxi- 
mum rate  of  rotation  from  west  to 
east  at  the  equator. 

When  this  air  enters  regions  of  higher 
latitudes  it  reaches  districts  which  are 
rotating  less  rapidly  than  itself,  and  which 
therefore  lag  behind  it ;  while  the  air,  shoot- 
ing forward,  appears  as  a  wind  blowing 
froiT)   W.   t9   E,      Ip   this  way  the  upper 


250 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 
LESSON  ON  TRADE  WINBS— continued. 


Information. 


2.  In  S.  hemisphere. 

(a)  Belt  of  calms. 

(b)  Region  of  S.E,  trade  winds. 

(i)  In  Atlantic  3°  N.  to  28°  S.  lat. 
(2)  In  Pacific  2°  to  21°  S.  lat. 

The  belt  of  equatorial  calms  is 

frequently  the  scene  of  the  severest 

tempests,  with  heavy  rainfalls  and 

thunderstorms. 


Teaching. 


current  in  the  N.  hemisphere  becomes  a 
S.W.  wind,  and  in  the  S.  hemisphere  a 
N.W.  wind. 

The  converse  is  the  case  with  the  polar 
current.  This  enters  a  region  of  quicker 
rotation  from  a  region  of  slower  rotation, 
and  lags  behind.  It  does  not  rotate  so 
quickly  as  those  parts  of  the  earth  near  the 
equator,  and  is  therefore  perceived  as  an 
E.  wind — N.E.  or  E.  in  the  N.  hemisphere  ; 
S.E.  in  the  S.  hemisphere. 

IV.  la  and  2a.  The  S.E.  and  N.E.  trade 
winds  meet  near  the  equator. 

Anticipated  result.— They  ought  to 
unite  and  form  a  gentle  wind  blowing  to 
theW. 

Actual  result.— Both  are  suspended 
through  the  strong  upward  draught  pro- 
duced by  the  rapid  and  extensive  rarefaction 
at  the  equator.  This  produces  the  belt  of 
equatorial  calms  about  400  geographical 
miles  broad. 

lb  and  26.  Point  these  out  on  the  map. 
Refer  to  storms  of  the  belt  of  calms. 

A  map  should  be  sketched  on  the  B.B. 
showing  the  directions  of  the  trade  winds, 
and  the  position  of  the  belt  of  calms. 


A  IiSSSON  ON  RAIN. 

I.  Principles  Demonstrated  and  Explained. 

These  should  be  taught  by  observation  and  experiment. 

1.  Evaporation. 

[a)  Take  two  tin  saucers  of  equal  size  with  equal  quantities  of  water.     Apply 
heat  to  one  and  not  to  the  other,  or  place  one  near  the  fire  and  the 


other  in  a  cool  place.      The  one  supplied  with  most  heat  will  lose  its 
water  first ,  which  will  evaporate. 
{/>)  Refer  to  school  ink  wells.      The  ink  in  them  dries  up;  i.e.,   the  ink 
evaporates. 

[c]  Cold  dry  winds  in  the  spring  often  bring  chapped  hands.     The  moisture 

of  the  hands  is  evaporated  by  the  wind.  The  natives  of  Africa,  in  order 
to  protect  themselves  from  the  too  rapid  perspiration  occasioned  by  the 
simoom,  cover  themselves  with  fatty  substances. 

[d)  The  drying  of  the  clothes  after  washing  can  also  be  referred  to, 


GEOGRAPHY. 


251 


2.  Condensation. 

{a)  Hold  a  slaie  in  the  steam  issuing  from  a  kettle  spout.  The  slate  becomes 
moist.  The  vapour  has  been  turned  into  water  again — it  has  been  con- 
densed. 


(b)  Refer  to  a  crowded  room  and  the  moisture  on  the  windows.     The  mois- 

ture from  the  bodies  given  off  in  the  form  of  vapour  has  been  condensed 
by  the  cold  glass. 

[c)  Refer  to  a  cold  day.     You  can  see  people's  "  breath  "  ;  i.e..,  the  moisture 

contained  in  the  breath  is  condensed  as  soon  as  it  appears  from  the 
mouth  or  nostrils. 

3.  Application  of  these  Truths. — These  truths  should  then  be  applied  to 
explain  the  formation  of  rain.  The  class  should  be  able  to  tell  the  teacher  that 
rain  is  formed  by  the  evaporation  and  subsequent  condensation  of  the  water 
of  the  earth. 

4.  Why  Does  Rain  Fall  ? — The  class  will  understand  the  influence  of  the 
sun  and  the  formation  of  clouds  from  what  has  already  been  demonstrated.  But 
why  does  rain  fall  ? 

Take  two  large  glass  jars  and  nearly  fill  them  with  water.  Drop  lumps  of 
chalk  in  one  and  powdered  chalk  in  the  other.  The  heavy  particles  in 
(i)  fall  ;  i.e.,  they  sink  quickly.     The  light  particles  in  (2)  float. 


Apply  this  fact  to  the  particles  of  moisture  in  the  air.     The  condensed  and 
heavier  particles  fall  as  rain.     The  lighter  particles  remain  floating 
in  the  air  as  vapour  or  clouds.     Then  when  a  cold  wind  or  cold  moun- 
tain top  or  slope  further  condenses  the  moisture  in  the  air,  it  becomes 
too  heavy  to  remain  in  suspension,  and  so  falls  as  rain. 
II.  The  Rain  Gauge. — Show  one  if  possible,  and  explain  its  action.     If  not, 
explain  from  a  sketch  on  the  B.B.      "  M  is  a  cylindrical  vessel,  closed  at  the 
top  by  a  funnel-shaped  lid,  in  which  there  is  a  very  small  hole,  through  which 
the  rain  falls.     At  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  a  glass  tube  (A),  in  which  the 
water  rises  to  the  same  height  as  inside  the  rain  gauge,  and  is  measured  by  a 
scale  on  the  side,  as  shown  in  the  figure." 


252 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


"  The  apparatus  being  placed  in  an  exposed  situation,  if  at  the  end  of  a 
month  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  tube  is  two  inches,  it  shows  that  the  water 
has  attained  this  height  in  the  vessel,  and   consequently  that  a  layer  of  two 


inches  in  depth  expresses  the  quantity  of  rain  which  this  extent  of  surface  has 
received." — Ganot's  Physics. 

III.  Rainfall. — This  is  measured  by  the  rain  gauge.  The  amount  for  each 
aay  is  registered,  and  the  average  taken  for  the  year.  This  gives  the  annual 
rainfall.  The  average  rainfall  can  be  taken  from  the  average  of  a  number  of 
years.     A  day  is  rainy  when  the  rainfall  is  not  less  than  •oi  inch. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  amount  of  rain  that  falls  put  the  following 
statistics  on  the  B.B. 

I  inch  of  rain  on  a  square  yard  gives  4  "679  gallons,  or  4774  lbs. 

I  inch  of  rain  on  an  acre  gives  22,662  gallons,  or  loi  tons. 

FURTHER   SUGGESTIONS   ON   THE    TEACHING  OF 
GEOGRAPHY. 

As  it  is  impossible  within  the  Hmits  of  such  a  chapter  as  this 
to  set  out  the  methods  for  the  teaching  of  the  many  subjects 
embraced  under  the  term  geography,  a  few  further  suggestions 
are  made  with  a  view  to  rendering  assistance  in  the  planning  out 
of  a  few  typical  lessons.  The  skeleton  of  the  lesson  is  provided  ; 
the  teacher's  task  will  be  to  fill  in  the  details,  to  think  out  his  own 
experiments  and  illustrations,  and  to  make  any  modifications  in 
the  general  outline  that  special  or  local  circumstances  may 
require. 

Lessons  on  Towns.— Only  the  most  important  or  the  most 
interesting  should  be  dealt  with.  One  of  the  worst  errors  of 
geography  lessons  and  geography  books  is  the  overcrowding  of 
names,  and  the  names  of  towns  generally  figure  largely  in  this 
overcrowding.  Having  chosen  the  subject  of  the  lesson,  the 
teacher  should  proceed  to  deal  with  it  as  follows  :^ 

\,  Locality. 

[a)  Latitude. 
\b)  Altitude. 
\c)  Position — goast  or  inland  ;  river  (if  any). 


GEOGRAPHY.  253 

2.  Climate. 

(a)  Maximum  and  minimum  temperature. 
{d)  Range  of  temperature. 

1.  Daily  range. 

2.  Annual  range. 

(c)  Prevailing  winds. 

(d)  Rainfall. 

3.  Occupations. 

(a)  Industries. 

{!>)  Commerce. 

(c)  Agriculture  (crops). 

{d)  Minerals. 

4.  Population. 

{a)  Present  population.    \  ^  r  •  „-p„-p  „_  decrease 

h)  At  last  census.  /  ^^^^  ^^  increase  or  decrease. 

(c)  Health  ;  death  rate  ;  reasons  for  high  or  low  rate. 
{d)  Religion. 

(e)  Social  life  ;  houses  ;  dress  ;  amusements. 

5.  Communications. 

(a)  Land.  (l>)  Water. 

1.  Rail.  I.  Rivers. 

2.  Trams,  etc.  2.  Canals. 

3.  Roads.  3.  Trade  routes. 

6.  Government. — Whether  a  corporation  or  vestry,  etc.      The  amount  of 

local  control  (if  any)  possessed  ;  the  methods  of  election,  etc. 

Lessons  on  Railways. — Show  a  map  of  the  country  chosen 
for  the  subject  of  the  lesson,  with  its  railway  system  well  marked. 
The  maps  of  the  railway  systems  of  one  or  two  other  countries 
should  be  put  up  also  for  the  purpose  of  illustration,  comparison, 
or  contrast,  and  the  systems  should  be  carefully  chosen  with  a 
view  to  this  purpose. 

1.  Total  mileage.     Compare  with  other  countries. 

2.  Number  of  trains,  and  rate  of  travelling.  Compare  district 
with  district  and  country  with  country  again.  Get  or  give  reasons 
for  different  rates. 

3.  Fares  :  workmen's,  Parliamentary  (explain).      Express,  etc. 

4.  Trade  uses  of  railways.  Preferential  rates  :  their  influence 
on  trade.     Light  railways.     Post-office  work  (Royal  mail). 

5.  Pleasure  uses  of  railways.  "Trips"  or  excursions. 
Mountain  railways  (Switzerland). 

6.  Method  of  accommodation  :  closed  or  open  compartments  ; 
corridor  trains  ;  Pulman  cars  ;  buffets  ;  sleeping  carriages.  Com- 
pare English,  American,  and  Continental. 

7.  The  ticket  system.  Compare  English  with  Continental, 
Electric  railway  system  (no  tickets). 

Lessons  on  Articles  of  Commerce. — Take  coal  as  an  example. 


254  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

1.  Distribution  (coal  fields  to  be  marked  on  the  map). 

2.  The  extent  of  the  coal  industry.  Compare  with  other 
countries. 

3.  Its  uses. 

(a)  Manufactures. 
[d]  Locomotion. 

(c)  Sea  travelling. 

(d)  Domestic  uses. 

4.  Its  substitutes  :  peat,  wood,  charcoal. 

5.  Exported  to  or  imported  from.  Places  to  be  named  and 
pointed  out. 

6.  Its  influence  on  the  trade  and  wealth  of  the  country. 

7.  The  factors  determining  its  price. 

Lessons  on  Geographical  Apparatus.— One  of  the  chief 
characteristics  of  the  present  teaching  of  geography  is  the  develop- 
ment of  improved  apparatus  for  realistic  teaching.  Globes, 
maps,  and  diagrams  of  all  sorts  are  produced  in  abundance  and  in 
better  quality  than  before  ;  but  the  greatest  development  has  been 
in  the  production  of  instruments  and  models  for  the  teaching  of 
the  physical  branch  of  the  subject ;  and  although  the  present  price 
of  many  of  these  articles  keeps  them  out  of  many  schools,  still  the 
young  teacher  ought  to  keep  himself  posted  in  the  latest  im- 
provements of  this  kind.  These  pieces  of  apparatus  are  full  of 
suggestions,  and  they  may  help  to  elucidate  problems  that  have 
hitherto  been  unintelligible  or  obscure  to  the  teacher,  and  they 
may  further  give  him  hints  for  the  construction  of  cheap,  simple, 
and  self-made  apparatus.  Illustrated  descriptions  of  these  and  of 
other  pieces  of  apparatus  should  be  collected — they  are  easily 
obtainable  from  the  illustrated  advertisements  constantly  appear- 
ing, and  from  the  readily  issued  illustrated  catalogues  of  the  pub- 
lishers— and  pasted  in  some  note  book  kept  for  the  purpose. 
Such  a  book  would  be  neither  the  least  valuable  nor  the  least 
useful  in  the  student's  library.  Such  pieces  of  apparatus  would 
include  the  Geodoscope,  the  Tellurian,  the  Orrery,  Cunnington's 
apparatus  for  illustrating  the  causes  of  the  seasons,  the  Selenotrope, 
the  Terrestrial  Time  Globe,  the  Volvorb,  Clayden's  model  of  the 
Atlantic,  Jessop's  apparatus  for  illustrating  the  effects  of  the 
earth's  revolution  in  her  orbit,  and  the  Planisphere.  The  Globe  is 
here  chosen,  because  it  is  within  the  knowledge  and  experience 
of  all. 


GEOGRAPHY.  255 

The  Grlobe. 

1.  Its  Principal  Uses. 

(a)  To  show  the  shape  of  the  earth  ;  its  motions  ;  its  incHna- 
tion  ;  its  zones;  meridians;  latitude;  longitude  ;  equator:  ecliptic, 
etc. 

(b)  To  teach  climate,  the  angle  of  the  sun,  and  the  proximity 
of  masses  of  land  and  water. 

(c)  The  relative  position  of  the  various  continents,  countries, 
oceans,  seas,  etc. 

(d)  To  teach  tides,  day  and  night,  seasons,  sunrise,  and  sunset. 

(e)  A  globular  magnet  should  be  used  for  lessons  on  attraction 
and  gravitation. 

(/)  A  relief  globe  should  be  used  for  teaching  mountains, 
valleys,  etc. 

2.  Preparatory  Iiessons. — To   enable   a  child  to  thoroughly 

understand   the   teaching  of  the  globe,   previous  lessons   should 

have  been  given  on  the  curvature  of  the  earth,  on  attraction,  and 

on  the  inequalities  of  the  earth's  surface. 

[a]  Simple  Lessons  on  Attraction. — These  lessons  will  help  the  children 
to  understand  how  things  adhere  to  the  earth. 

(1)  Cohesion  can  be  taught  by  dipping  a  pencil  in  water. 

(2)  Magnetic  attraction  can  be  shown  by  a  few  experiments.     The  children  will 

thus  learn  that  bodies  have  the  power  of  attracting  or  drawing  each  other. 

(3)  Extend  these  notions  to  explain  gravity,  as  affecting  larger  bodies  like  the 

planets  and  stars.      A  globular  magnet  would  be  a  great  aid ;  failing  this 
use  an  ordinary  magnet. 
IJ>)  On  the  Curvature  of  the  Earth. — The  curvature  of  the  ocean  will  be 
illustrated  by  a  reference  to  the  manner  of  appearing  and  disappearing 
of  ships.     This  can  be  illustrated  by  a  small  toy  ship  and  a  very  large 
globe.     Do  not  attempt  other  proofs  at  present. 
{c)  Lessons  on  the  Inequalities  of  the  Earth's  Surface  should  be  given. 
This  would  give  the  idea  of  mountains,  hills  and  valleys. 

The  Comparative  Method. 

This  is  the  method  of  teaching  on  which  several  of  our  school 
geographies  are  more  or  less  based,  and  it  may  be  used  to 
advantage  in  some  cases  ;  but  the  resemblances  should  be  real, 
and  similarity  should  always  precede  dissimilarity,  for  points  of 
likeness  are  more  important  than  points  of  difference.  The 
placing  of  the  facts  side  by  side  fixes  the  attention  by  appealing 
to  curiosity  and  the  critical  faculty.  When  the  comparisons  take 
a  graphic  form  the  value  of  the  method  is  enhanced.  Contrasts 
a  most  valuable  aid  to  memory,  is  the  converse  of  comparison, 
and  is  very  freely  used.  Illustrations  follow,  the  first  being  taken 
from  Meiklejohn's  Geography,  and  the  second  from  Gill's  Student's 
Geography. 


256 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


I.  Mountain  Lakes. 

(a)  Very  deep. 

(d)  Have  high  and  steep  shores. 

(c)  Are  generally  long  and  narrow. 

(d)  Irregular  in  shape. 
(<?)  Picturesque  scenery. 


Lakes  in  Plains. 

(a)  Generally  shallow. 

(d)  Have  low  sloping  shores. 

{c)  Are  often  broad. 

(d)  Regular  and  monotonous  in  shape 

{e)  Tame  scenery. 


2.    Wine  productions  in  millions  of  gallons. 


FRANCE: 
9^0 


EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — What  is  the  meaning  of  the  distinction  between  physical,  political,  mathe- 
matical, and  industrial  geography?  Say  which  of  these  should  be  first  taught,  and 
why. 

2. — Describe  fully  the  relative  advantages  of  questioning  children  in  geography ;  (a) 
Out  of  sight  of  any  map ;  and  {b)  With  a  map  before  them  on  which  there  are  no  names 
of  places  ;  and  state  the  best  way  of  combining  these  two  methods  of  examination. 

3. — Draw  a  map  of  the  school  premises,  and  of  the  roads  or  streets  adjacent,  with 
which  you  are  most  familiar ;  and  say  what  use  you  would  make  of  such  a  map  in  teach- 
ing the  elements  of  geography. 


GEOGRAPHY.  257 

4. — Notes  of  a  lesson  on  a  cape;  mountains:  river  Mississippi;  climate;  winds; 
snow  and  rain  (I.);  changes  of  the  season;  islands;  rain;  formation  and  course  of 
rivers ;  rivers. 

5.  —Draw  a  plan  of  the  schoolroom,  and  show  how  it  may  be  applied  in  the  teaching 
of  scale  and  proportion  in  map-drawing  to  scholars  in  the  First  Standard. 

6. — Name  in  progressive  order  of  teaching,  the  apparatus  required  for  lessons  in 
geography,  and  show  how  you  would  give  a  conception  of  scale  and  proportion  in  map- 
drawing  to  young  children. 

7. — State  the  chief  points  to  be  noticed  in  giving  a  lesson  on  "  A  River,"  with  the 
order  in  which  each  point  should  be  introduced  to  the  class.  Illustrate  your  answer  by 
some  English  or  Scotch  river. 

8.— Show  that  a  map  differs  from  a  picture,  and  explain  how  you  would  supply  the 
deficiencies  to  a  class  beginning  to  learn  geography. 

g. — Point  out  some  of  the  means  by  which  the  attention  of  a  class  may  be  sustained 
through  an  oral  lesson  of  thirty  minutes'  duration  on  geography,  so  that  the  dull  or 
backward  children  may  not  be  allowed  to  suffer. 

10. — Name  the  principal  uses  of  a  globe  in  teaching  geography,  and  state  fully  how 
you  would  employ  it  in  giving  a  lesson  on  day  and  night. 

II.— By  what  illustrations  would  you  give  children  their  first  ideas  of  mountains  and 
rivers  ;  (a)  from  their  own  experience ;  and  (6)  on  the  blackboard  ? 

12.— A  complaint  is  frequently  made  that  geography,  as  taught  in  schools,  is  con- 
fined to  lists  of  capes,  heights  of  mountains,  etc.  How  far  are  such  lists  useful,  and  for 
what  purpose  ?     Illustrate  from  your  knowledge  of  British  capes  and  mountains. 

13. — How  would  you  begin  teaching  geography  to  a  class  of  young  children?  Give 
the  substance  of  a  few  of  your  first  lessons. 

14. — Draw  a  plan  of  the  schoolroom  with  which  you  are  most  familiar,  showing  the 
position  and  relative  sizes  of  desks  and  gallery.  Explain  the  advantages  or  disadvan- 
tages of  the  arrangement. 

i5,_Describe  the  sort  of  apparatus  and  visible  illustration  which  is  likely  to  prove 
most  helpful  to  a  teacher  in  giving  the  earliest  lessons  in  geography. 

16. — After  explaining  to  a  class  the  effect  of  mountain  ranges  on  climate,  show  how 
you  might  lead  the  children  to  seek  further  proofs  for  themselves. 

17. — In  giving  a  lesson  on  a  river,  which  is  the  better  plan — to  speak  first  of  a  par- 
ticular river  which  the  children  have  seen,  or  to  start  with  a  definition  and  a  general 
description  ?     Give  reasons  for  your  opinion. 


17 


258 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
HISTORY. 

Value  of  History. 

1.  It  helps  to  reveal  the  past  history  of  the  country,  and  so  gives 
an  amount  of  valuable  information. 

2.  It  calls  forth  feelings  of  patriotism.  It  stimulates  the  national 
pride,  promotes  a  love  of  virtue,  gives  powerful  object  lessons 
against  vice,  and  tends,  rightly  taught,  to  make  good  citizens.  This 
ought  to  be  its  prime  aim. 

3.  It  arouses  interest  and  curiosity,  and  so  helps  to  form  habits 
oi  concentration.  This  object  is  defeated  when  history  lessons  are 
crammed. 

4.  It  furnishes  plenty  of  work  for  the  reasoning  powers.  The 
pupil  learns  to  trace  cause  and  effect ;  to  generalise  ;  and  to  make 
valuable  inductions.  He  finds  a  cycle  in  historic  events — that 
history  repeats  itself.  He  sees  the  power  of  the  monarch  grow 
less,  and  he  learns  why  ;  how  one  class  rises  and  another  falls  ; 
and  facts  which  throw  a  powerful  light  upon  present  tendencies, 
and  give  plenty  of  scope  for  thought. 

5.  Properly  taught,  and  methodically  studied,  it  may  be  made 
a  good  training  for  the  memory,  which  it  taxes  severely. 

6.  Persons  and  events  of  the  past  are  still  on  their  trial  before 
posterity.  History  presents  evidence  which  is  weighed  and 
reasoned  on ;  conclusions  are  arrived  at,  and  judgment  is  pro- 
nounced.    It  thus  cultivates  the  critical  faculty . 

7.  Our  sympathies  are  often  called  into  active  play,  and  any- 
thing which  strengthens  and  develops  sympathy  is  a  valuable  aid 
to  social  progress.  It  also  provides  a  legitimate  safety-valve  for 
the  play  of  the  malevolent  affections. 

8.  It  increases  our  capacity  and  opportunities  for  pleasure.  By 
association  the  objects  in  our  museums,  our  old  buildings,  our 


HISTORY. 


259 


battlefields,  all  possess  an  added  interest  and  attraction  from  our 
knowledge  of  history. 

9.  It  helps  to  brush  away  national  prejudice  by  giving  us  some 
knowledge  of  other  nations.  Bias  against,  and  hatred  and  con- 
tempt for  other  nations,  are  often  the  result  of  ignorance. 

The  Objects  of  History. 

"  The  history  of  mankind  is  the  history  of  great  men.  To  find 
out  these,  to  clear  the  dirt  from  them,  and  to  place  them  on  their 
proper  pedestals,  is  the  function  of  the  historian.  He  cannot 
have  a  nobler  one."  (Carlyle.)  This  is  equally  true  of  the 
teacher's  function. 

"  The  object  of  history  is  to  discover  and  make  visible 
illustrious  characters,  and  pay  them  ungrudging  honour.  His- 
tory teaches  that  right  and  wrong  are  real  distinctions.  That  is 
the  best  condition  of  things  which  produces,  not  the  largest 
amount  of  knowledge  or  wealth,  but  the  men  of  noblest  nature. 
Does  history  show  that  in  proportion  as  men  are  left  to  their  own 
wills  they  become  happier,  truer,  braver,  simpler,  more  reverent  of 
good,  more  afraid  of  evil  ?  This  is  a  high  ideal,  but  it  is  one  the 
historian  should  strive  to  reach,  for  the  only  true  progress  is 
moral  progress."     (Froude.) 

What  is  true  of  the  historian  is  again  true  of  the  teacher. 
The  progress  of  morality  and  the  development  of  patriotism 
should  always  be  the  two  chief  objects  sought  in  teaching. 

Bacon  says  it  is  the  true  object  of  history  to  represent  the 
events  themselves  together  with  the  counsels,  and  to  leave  the 
observations  and  conclusions  thereupon  to  the  liberty  and  faculty 
of  every  man's  judgment.  A  Greek  writer  says  history  is  philo- 
sophy teaching  by  example. 

"  Now,  what  is  the  problem  of  teaching  history  ?  It  is  (i.)  to 
introduce  several  hundreds  or  thousands  of  persons,  and  several 
hundreds  of  events,  to  an  age  that  knows  nothing,  except  by  the 
power  of  sympathetic  or  anticipative  imagination,  of  men  or  of 
things;  (ii.)  to  make  each  person  introduced  an  individual  and  a 
real  character  ;  (iii.)  to  show  the  connection  of  cause  and  effect 
between  great  events."     (Meiklejohn.) 

General  Hints  on  the  Teaching  of  History. 

I.  The  teacher  should  combine  history  and  geography,  so  as 
to  teach  certain  valuable  lessons  concerning  territorial,  political, 
and  commercial  history. 


26o  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

2.  He  should  seek  to  bestow  accuracy  and  skill  in  representing 
graphically  the  ideas  gained  from  books?. 

3.  He  should  teach  the  association  of  different  subjects,  and 
the  knowledge  that  they  are  diverse  parts  of  one  whole. 

4.  He  should  show  the  connection  between  history  and  litera- 
ture. 

5.  The  pupil  should  receive  very  definite  general  impressions 
of  the  progress  of  historical  events.  He  should  also  learn  a  con- 
siderable number  of  historical  facts,  not  necessarily  for  immediate 
use,  but  to  serve  as  a  point  of  resistance  for  gaining  other  such 
facts  in  future  years. 

6.  The  pupil  should  make  some  progress  in  learning  how  to 
use  the  material  he  has  acquired. 

7.  "  He  should  develop  keenness  of  observation  in  regard  to 
the  political  and  social  conditions  in  which  he  finds  himself. 
These  conditions  of  themselves  are  seldom  of  interest  to  the 
pupil,  for  it  is  physical  rather  than  mental  activity  that  appeals  to 
him.  But  our  Great  Charter,  such  rebellions  as  those  of  Tyler 
and  Cade,  our  poor  law,  etc.,  should  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  what 
the  State  does  for  its  dependent  classes.  The  study  of  the 
colonists'  resistance  to  taxation  that  fires  the  boy's  heart  should 
lead  to  an  interest  in  the  principles  of  taxation  in  his  own  day 
and  country.  Every  concrete  illustration  of  the  past  should 
find  its  parallel  or  its  abstract  application  in  the  present."  (Miss 
Salmon.) 

Difficulties  in  the  Teaching'  of  History. 

1.  The  subject  is  by  no  means  an  easy  one,  for  it  demands 
plenty  of  good  sound  reasoning  and  reading  from  the  teacher.  In  the 
Baconian  sense,  the  teacher  must  be  essentially  a  "  full  "  man. 

2.  The  maintenance  of  a  proper  historical  perspective  is  difftcult. 
Events  and  persons  want  keeping  in  their  proper  places.  The 
leading  characters  and  their  chief  works  need  to  be  in  the  front 
of  the  picture  plane.  The  unimportant,  both  in  person  and  fact, 
should  be  omitted  or  put  well  back  in  the  picture. 

3.  The  teacher  requires  good  descriptive  powers  to  vitalise  his 
characters  and  events.  This  will  involve  the  possession  of  good 
vocal  control,  more  or  less  dramatic  ability,  a  readiness  of  illus- 
tration, and  a  skilful  use  of  the  forces  of  contrast  and  comparison. 
The  imagination  and  the  emotions  also  require  skilful  management. 

4.  There  is  a  tendency  to  abuse  the  memory  rather  than  to  use 


HISTORY.  261 

it.  It  is  so  easy  for  the  teacher  to  give  a  chapter  to  be  read  up, 
and  then  to  examine  upon  it.  The  memory  is  overworked,  and 
very  often  matter  thus  acquired  is  neither  digested  nor  retained. 
The  memory  is  called  into  play  extravagantly.  If  a  chapter  is  to 
be  read  it  should  be  read  after  a  lesson  on  its  subject  matter  had 
been  given,  and  not  before. 

5.  There  is  a  further  tendency  to  overwork.  Too  much  is 
often  demanded  for  the  time  at  its  disposal,  and  the  result  is 
disastrous.  The  work  is  neither  properly  taught  nor  digested. 
Even  where  the  demands  are  apparently  more  reasonable,  and  a 
"  period"  only  is  prescribed,  we  have  that  commendable  craze 
for  "thoroughness"  showing  itself  in  the  examination  questions, 
and  which  must  of  necessity  involve  more  work. 

6.  It  requires,  for  effective  teaching,  a  great  mental  range  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils.  History  is  a  strange  mixture  of  the  very 
simple  and  the  very  difficult.  Parts  fall  easily  within  the  com- 
prehension of  young  scholars;  parts  require  much  riper  minds. 
Hence  the  lessons  must  be  suitable;  and  the  principle  of  selection 
involved  is  often  very  trying  for  the  teacher. 

Faults  in  the  Teaching  of  History. 

In  stating  the  difficulties  of  teaching  history,  one  naturally 
indicates  some  of  its  fauJts,  for  the  two  facts  stand  in  the  relation 
of  cause  and  effect. 

1.  Too  much  is  attempted;  a  mass  of  detail  is  crowded  into 
book  and  lesson,  only  to  the  damage  of  both.  This  kills  all 
interest. 

2.  The  memory  is  unduly  taxed  ;  training  and  education  dis- 
appear, and  cram  becomes  rampant.     This  kills  good  method. 

3.  The  teaching  is  often  unconsciously  obscure.  Allusions  are 
made,  and  it  is  often  assumed  they  are  understood.  Terms 
are  given  without  being  defined  or  explained.  They  may  be 
understood  by  the  teacher  :  they  rarely  are  by  the  class. 

4.  All  history  lessons  ought  to  be  focussed  on  its  two  main 
objects  -moral  and  patriotic.  This  is  more  frequently  forgotten 
than  remembered.     The  focus  being  wrong,  the  view  cannot  he  right. 

5.  Unsuitable  matter  is  chosen.  Often,  if  it  is  suitable  in 
quantity,  it  is  unsuitable  in  kind  or  quality. 

6.  Often  there  is  insufficient  preparation.  Preparation  is 
absolutely  essential,  even  if  the  teacher  be  a  full  reader  and  a 


262  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

deep  thinker.     The  obscurity  attaching  to  many  of  the  lessons  is 
one  of  the  results  accruing  from  this  too  prevalent  fault. 

History  Books. — Professor  Meiklejohn  once  asked  in  a  lecture 
delivered  by  him  on  the  teaching  of  history  :  What  are  the  quali- 
ties we  desire  to  find  in  a  history  book  ?  What  would  a  common- 
sense  person  desire  to  find  in  a  history  that  was  to  be  used  in 
schools,  and  that  would  be  good  for  the  growing  mind  ?  He  sug- 
gested three  things  :— 

1.  That  the  history  should  be  interesting  in  itself;  that  it 
should  attract  and  not  repel  its  readers  ;  that  it  should  be  read  for 
its  own  intrinsic  interest,  and  not  merely  for  duty. 

2.  That  the  history  lent  itself  to  good  reading  aloud ;  i.e.,  it 
should  be  written  in  a  spirited,  vigorous,  and  human  style. 

3.  That  it  lent  itself  easily  to  reproduction ;  i.e.,  that  the  facts 
and  events  stated  and  described  in  it  were  so  plainly  and  clearly 
stated  and  described,  that  the  young  learner  could  easily  state 
them  over  again  in  his  own  way. 

STAGES  IN  TEACHING  HISTORY. 

I.  Stories. — Begin  with  stories.  Children  love  these,  and  if 
they  are  pleasantly  rendered,  there  is  soon  a  decided  liking  for 
them  throughout  the  whole  class.  Do  not  seek  to  give  too  much 
information  at  first,  but  rather  try  to  interest  and  amuse.  Let  there 
be  some  human  nature  in  your  lessons,  and  let  them  deal  with  the 
ways,  actions,  and  motives  of  men  in  an  elementary  fashion. 

1.  Attractive  Stories. — The  stories,  then,  must  be  attractive, 
and  every  teacher  of  history  who  has  had  an  experience  of  a  young 
class  in  the  subject  knows  that  there  are  certain  stories  or  episodes 
which  prove  particularly  attractive  to  the  scholars.  Such  stories 
include — 

{a)  Biographies. — Under  this  head  will  fall  stories  of  Caractacus,  Boadicea, 
Alfred,  Becket,  Rosamond,  Wallace,  the  Black  Prince,  the  young 
Princes  of  York,  Wolsey,  Lady  Jane  Grey,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  the 
Seven  Bishops,  Raleigh,  Drake,  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  Cromwell,  Marl- 
borough, Wellington,  Nelson,  the  young  Pretender,  Robin  Hood, 
Hereward,  Prince  Arthur,  etc. 

{l>)  Rebellions,  etc. — These  will  include  such  things  as  Wat  Tyler's  insurrec- 
tion. Jack  Cade's  rebellion,  the  rebellion  of  the  Percies,  the  Gunpowder 
Plot,  the  Meal  Tub  Plot,  Monmouth's  rebellion,  the  rebellions  of  the 
Pretenders  and  the  Chartists. 

(c)  Battles. — These  should  embrace  such  events  as  the  piratical  raids  of  the 
Danes,  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  the  Crusade,  Bannockburn,  Crecy, 
Poitiers,  Agincourt,  the  Spanish  Armada,  Blenheim,  Trafalgar, 
Waterloo,  Balaclava,  the  Indian  Mutiny,  and  the  Zulu  War. 


HISTORY.  263 

{d)  Miscellaneous. — In  this  group  could  be  placed  such  incidents  as  the 
meeting  at  Runnymede,  the  formation  of  the  New  Forest,  the  drown- 
ing of  Prince  William,  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  the  Great  Plague 
of  London,  with  its  closely  following  Fire,  the  French  Revolution,  the 
First  Exhibition,  and  so  on. 

2.  The  Reasons  for  their  Attractiveness. — They  are  attrac- 
tive because  of  their  emotional  character.  There  is  a  solid  tinge 
of  sensationalism  or  romance  in  many  of  them;  and  romance  was 
ever  attractive  to  the  young.  The  imagination  is  indulged,  and 
this  indulgence  introduces  another  element  of  pleasure.  Pleasure 
is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  human  motives.  Whilst  listening 
to  these  stories,  there  is  a  perfect  indrinking  of  emotion,  and  our 
best  psychological  authorities  consider  this  as  essential  for  chil- 
dren as  country  walks,  games,  and  treats.  There  is  much  of  that 
which  attracts  in  fiction  and  in  the  drama.  These  stories  produce 
a  certain  amount  of  mental  excitement,  which  is  stimulating  and 
enjoyable.  The  strength  of  this  element  can  be  easily  understood 
when  we  reflect  that  the  so-called  pleasures  of  older  people  are 
often  based  on  excitement.  These  historic  actions  appeal  to  our 
egoistic  and  social  feelings,  and  so  minister  to  our  happiness. 
Admiration  for  courage,  virtue,  success  ;  anger,  contempt,  scorn  ; 
pride  of  race,  of  conquest,  patriotism  in  its  strongest  aspects,  all 
these  feelings  are  affected  in  turn,  and  contribute  their  share  of 
attractiveness.  The  feeling  of  rivalry  is  stimulated  only  to  be 
regulated  and  guided.  The  love  of  activity  and  power  finds  mental 
outlets  in  these  stories.  We  fight  with  our  heroes — on  their  side ; 
we  share  their  risks  and  triumphs,  their  love  of  approbation,  and 
learn  to  love  and  respect  them.  We  sympathise  with  those  who 
suffer  unjustly,  and  our  sympathy  runs  warm  into  kindred  cases 
in  our  own  small  circle.  There  is  little  or  nothing  educative  in 
the  first  instance,  for  the  pleasures  of  knowledge  are  yet  too  weak 
to  avail ;  but  the  foundation  of  a  love  for  the  subject  is  being  laid 
in  an  attractive  manner,  a  foundation  upon  which  is  to  be  built 
the  after  structure  of  a  sound  historical  training. 

H.  Biographies. — The  teacher  will  then  pass  on  to  biography 
in  a  fuller  and  more  educative  manner,  and  this  stage  would  be 
suited  to  Standard  IV.  and  upwards.  Further  remarks  upon  this 
branch  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  the  "  Biographical  Method  " 
in  the  section  on  "  Lessons  on  Reigns  "  ;  and  still  later  under  the 
head  of  "  Notes  of  Lessons  on  Biographies  ". 

HI.  Incidents. — This    will    be   an    expansion    of    the    "  Mis- 


264  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

cellaneous  "  item  under  the  head  of  "Stories".  As  in  the  pre- 
ceding case,  the  subjects  will  be  handled  more  fully,  losing  none 
of  their  attractiveness,  it  is  hoped,  but  requiring  more  thought,  and 
furnishing  more  training  and  education.  The  incidents  should  be 
striking,  instructive,  and  interesting.  They  would  include  such 
subjects  as  travels,  battles,  voyages,  plagues,  rebellions,  famous 
Acts  of  Parliament,  plots,  etc. 

rv.  Periods. — A  period  of  history  should  next  be  taken — say 
the  Tudor  or  Stuart  period.  But  even  here  the  teaching  will  be 
largely  biographical.  The  period  may  be  taught  by  one  of 
the  methods  laid  down  in  the  "  Lessons  on  Reigns  ". 

V.  Constitutional  History. — A  "  period  "  could  be  taken  in 
each  of  the  higher  standards,  but  in  the  highest  standards  the 
elementary  principles  of  our  Constitution  should  be  explained  ; 
the  constitution  and  functions  of  Parliament ;  the  social  and 
religious  state  of  the  nation,  and  so  on.  In  every  stage  biography 
will  form  a  part  of  the  teaching,  for  the  lives  of  eminent  men  are 
the  historic  pegs  around  which  hang  the  events  of  a  period. 

I.ESSONS  ON  REIGNS. 

I.  Their  Use. — Any  such  lessons  as  these  should  be  given  at 
a  late  period  in  the  school  course.  If  history  has  been  well 
taught  in  a  school,  it  will  not  have  been  through  the  "  reigns"  as 
a  syllabus  of  lessons  primarily.  But  as  a  means  for  summarising 
or  for  recapitulating,  the  reign  can  be  used  with  some  profit.  It 
will  test  the  pupil's  memory  and  synthetical  power  to  retain  and 
pick  out  and  group  those  portions  of  a  series  of  lessons  on  the 
biographies.  Constitution,  literature,  etc.,  of  the  people  which 
belong  to  any  particular  reign.  Few  will  be  able  to  do  this,  as 
the  test  is  too  severe.  Hence  such  lessons  will  afford  an  oppor- 
tunity to  the  teacher  of  presenting  his  facts — facts  which  for  the 
most  part  should  be  already  known,  or  at  least  familiar — in  a  new 
combination  to  the  pupil.  The  name  of  the  sovereign  will  serve  as 
a  useful  centre,  around  which  these  events  might  be  grouped. 

H.  Method  of  Teaching.— There  are  many  methods  laid  down 
in  the  various  text  books  in  use,  but  perhaps  the  first  given  is  the 
best. 

1.  The  Chronological  Method. — The  reign  should  be  pre- 
sented as  a  complete  picture,  the  parts  bearing  each  its  due 
weight.  The  lesson  then  really  reverts  to  a  species  of  biography, 
in  which  the  sovereign  may  or  may  not  play  a  conspicuous  part. 


HISTORY.  265 

But  all  that  has  been  said  in  favour  of  teaching  history  through 
biography  can  be  repeated  here,  for  it  bears  as  much  value. 

2.  The  Epoch  Method.— This  is  a  better  method  for  a  range 
of  history  lessons  than  for  a  lesson  on  one  reign.  It  lends  clear- 
ness to  the  method,  but  it  does  not  maintain  interest  like  a 
narrative.  The  interest  of  pursuit  is  weaker,  and  the  lesson 
suffers  in  comparison.  The  epochs  for  the  reign  oi  John  would  be 
something  like  the  following  : — 

{a)  John's  foreign  policy.      This  would  include  the  loss  of  Normandy  and 

the  murder  of  Arthur. 
(d)  Church  troubles. 
(V)  The  Great  Charter,  and  John's  attempts  to  evade  it. 

3.  The  Parliamentary  Method. — In  this  case  the  reign  is 
taught  through  the  medium  of  its  Parliaments.  The  lessons  can 
be  made  methodical,  clear,  and  intelligent.  Only  the  most 
important  work  of  each  Parliament  should  be  given,  as  it  is 
unwise  to  overload  the  mind  with  detail.  The  method  has  one 
great  recommendation — it  teaches  the  history  of  the  people, 
which  is  history  proper.  But  it  is  wearisome,  scrappy,  and  often 
dry.  It  is  very  difficult  to  maintain  interest  by  it,  and  the 
objection  is  a  serious  one.  Of  course,  a  very  capable  teacher  can 
turn  any  legitimate  method  to  profit,  for  he  is  the  master  of  his 
method,  and  not  the  slave  of  it.  But  the  remarks  are  true  for  the 
average  teacher.  Again,  it  does  not  lend  itself  to  the  early  reigns 
of  history,  so  that  its  application  is  limited.  The  reign  of 
Charles  I.  is  taken  as  an  illustration. 

(a)  First  Parliament. — Met  1625.     Voted  two  subsidies  of  about  _;^i40, 000 

for  war  expenses.     Sat  two  months  only.     Why? 
{d)  Second  Parliament, — Met  1626.     Why  called  ? 

(i)  They  voted  inadequate  supplies. 

(2)  With  these  grants  they  coupled  the  condition  that  they  tvere  to  control  and 

regulate  every  part  of  the  government  which  displeased  them. 

(3)  They  withdrew  the  king's  prohibition,  and  let  Bristol  take  his  seat  in  the 

House  of  Lords. 

(4)  They  voted  that  common  fame  was  sufficient  ground  of  accusation  by  the 

Commons. 

The  other  Parliaments  could  be  similarly  dealt  with.  Obviously, 
one  reign  may  require  many  lessons,  each  of  which  will  make 
some  demand  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  Constitution  and  functions 
of  each  branch  of  Parliament.  For  this  reason  alone  such 
a  method  could  only  be  used  in  the  highest  classes  of  the 
school, 

4.  The  Classification  Method. —  Here  we  have  the  events  of 
a  reign  classified  under  such  well-known  heads  as  — 


266  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

(a)  Foreign  policy. 

(d)   Home  policy. 

(<:)  Science,  art,  literature. 

Or  the  history  of  the  reigns  may  be  classified  under  such  heads  as — 

(a)  The  growth  of  constitutional  liberty. 

{d)  The  power  of  the  Church. 

{<:)  The  growth  of  towns. 

(d)  The  growth  of  trade,  manufactures,  etc. 

[e)  The  growth  of  the  navy. 

{/)  The  progress  of  colonisation. 
(g)  The  growth  of  education. 

This  method  is  logical,  clear,  intelligent,  interesting,  and  lends 
itself  to  the  memory.  It  disputes  the  palm  with  the  first  method, 
and  by  many  is  preferred  to  it. 

5.  The  Biographical  Method.  -There  is  much  to  recommend 
this  method.  The  events  of  a  reign  are  the  work  of  the  great 
minds  of  that  reign  ;  and  the  lives  of  a  few  eminent  men  will 
embrace  and  explain  the  cause,  conduct,  and  results  of  those 
events.  Such  men  exercise  a  greater  influence  on  a  nation  than 
a  monarch.  Any  striking  or  suggestive  anecdotes  will  be  very 
useful  to  illustrate  and  to  add  interest  to  the  lesson.  Another 
great  recommendation  is  its  unity  of  plan,  and  the  individual 
becomes  a  nucleus  for  occasional  instruction  on  many  other 
subjects. 

6.  The  Comparative  Method.— Two  periods  are  taken,  and 
one  is  compared  with  the  other.  A  present  reign  is  compared 
with  a  past ;  the  reigns  of  two  queens  might  be  compared  ;  the 
War  of  the  Roses  with  the  Civil  Wars.  The  method  is  adapted 
to  all  branches  of  the  subject.  Two  movements  or  classes  might 
be  compared  :  two  individuals,  two  rebellions,  or  two  great 
charters.  The  Lollards  might  be  compared  with  the  Puritans; 
Cade's  rebellion  with  Tyler's  ;  Walpole  with  Gladstone ;  or  Pitt 
with  Beaconsfield.  The  general  principle  of  this  method  must  be 
remembered — that  points  of  likeness  are  more  important  than  points  of 
difference.  Contrast  may  be  considered  a  negative  aspect  of  the 
same  method.  In  such  cases  Walpole  would  be  taken  with  Pitt, 
and  so  on. 

NOTES  OF  LESSONS  ON  BIOGRAPHIES. 

The  notes  should  be  divided  into  two  columns,  one  of  which 
will  comprise  all  the  information  to  be  given,  whilst  the  other 
should  be  labelled  education,  and  should  show  what  training,  apart 
from  mere  information,  the  teacher  proposes  to  get  out  of  the 
lesson.       Effect  and  cause  should  be  pointed  out,  deductions  and 


HISTORY. 


267 


inferences  made,  points  of  conduct  observed  and  criticised,  and  a 
wise  use  made  of  contrast  and  comparison.  The  great  thing  to 
be  aimed  at  in  the  "education  "  column  is  to  select  such  points 
of  character  as  are  likely  to  be  specially  attractive  to  children, 
and  if  possible  to  fix  them  by  suitable  illustrations.  The  treat- 
ment must  always  depend  upon  the  ability  of  the  class.  Properly 
treated,  these  lessons  are  very  valuable  both  morally  and  in- 
tellectually. 

History  lessons  are  often  colourless  and  abstract,  but  in 
biography  the  personality  of  the  hero  is  ever  before  them.  The 
children  put  forth  an  effort  of  constructive  imagination,  form  their 
hero,  and  follow  him  eagerly  through  the  chief  incidents  of  his 
life.  The  interest  of  pursuit  is  thus  called  into  play,  and  the 
lessons  become  vivified  and  successful. 

The  great  danger  of  these  lessons  is  overcrowding.  The  draw- 
ing up  of  the  "  information  "  column  taxes  the  analytical  power 
of  the  student,  and  makes  serious  demands  upon  his  judgment. 
Experience  has  shown  that  pupil  teachers  often  fail  to  distinguish 
the  relative  importance  of  the  events  with  which  they  are  dealing, 
and  so  lose  the  true  sense  of  proportion  in  their  treatment  of  the 
subject.  For  this  reason  it  is  advisable  they  should  receive  extra 
practice  in  dealing  with  lessons  of  this  nature.  A  series  of  lessons 
on  eminent  men  should  be  prepared.  The  difficulty  of  treatment 
then  decreases  with  each  life,  which  becomes  an  extra  source  of 
illustration,  whilst  points  of  conduct  are  better  grasped  by  the 
increased  opportunities  of  making  comparisons  and  contrasts. 
The  following  notes  on  Walpole  will  require  at  least  two 
lessons :  — 

LESSON  ON  WALPOLE. 


Information. 

Education. 

I.  Early  Life. 

L  Treat  this  portion  of  the  lesson  briefly, 

but  call  attention  to— 

1676.     Born. 

I.  His  success.     He  attains  the  highest 

1700.  Entered     Parliament     for     Castle 

office  in  the   State.      Why?      Inference. 

Rising. 

Because  of  his  ability  and  energy. 

1705.  Councillor  to  George  of  Denmark. 

2.  His  failures. 

(a)  Guilty  of  breach  of  trust. 

1708.  Secretary  at  War. 

1710.  Chief  hand    in    Sacheverell's    im- 

(6) Guilty  of  notorious  corruption. 

peachment. 

3.  His  punishment.     He  was  to  be— 

1714.  Paymaster  of  the  Forces. 

(rt)  Committed  to  the  Tower. 

1717.  Disunion  in  Cabinet.     He  retires. 

(b)  Expelled  the  House. 

1720.  Resumes  former  office. 

Application.    Hinh  trust  dematids  high 

1721.  Prime  Minister. 

principle;    great     power    demands    great 

honesty. 

268 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 
LESSON  ON  W  ALP  OLE— continued. 


Information. 


II.  Prime  Minister. 

1.  Personal  Giiaracteristics. 

(a)  Neither  a  scholar  nor  a  cultivated 
man  ;  knew  next  to  nothing  of  history. 

(b)  Good-natured  man ;  frank ;  of  great 
industry.     A  great  sportsman. 

(c)  Great  tact  and  common  sense  ;  a  good 
business  man. 

(d)  No  orator,  but  a  good  debater.  Too 
fond  of  power ;  overbearing  manner. 

2.  His  Statesmansiiip. 

(a)  His  LoYe  of  Peace. 

Unsuccessfully  resisted  the  Spanish  war. 
(i)  "They  are  ringing  their  bells  now; 
they  will  soon  be  wringing  their  hands." 

(2)  "  Madam,  there  are  50,000  men  slain 
in  Europe  this  year,  and  not  one  English- 
man."     1734. 

(3)  "  My  politics  are  to  keep  free  from  all 
engagements  as  long  as  we  can." 

(6)  His  Bribery. 

(i)  Refer  to  venality  of  Commons.  M.P.'s 
sold  their  votes.  Electors  were  bought  and 
sold. 

(2)  No  publicity  on  the  votes  given  in 
Parliament. 

(3)  Newspapers  not  allowed  to  publish 
members'  speeches. 

(4)  "  Every  man  has  his  price." 

(5)  The  charge  of  bribery  overstated. 
Only  one  case  proved. 

3.  His  Financial  Policy. 
(a)  His  Excise  Bill. 

Its  object  to  stop  smuggling. 

(i.)  By  establishing  bonded  warehouses. 

(ii.)  By  raising  the  revenue  from  inland 
dealers  in  the  form  of  excise,  instead  of 
levying  at  the  ports  in  the  form  of  customs. 

Thrown  out  1733. 

(6)  His  Free  Trade  Policy. 

The  necessaries  of  life  and  the  raw  mate- 
rials of  manufacture  were  to  be  free  of  all 
imposts,  and  that  indirect  taxation  might 
be  the  means  of  freeing  land  from  most  of 
its  burdens,  if  not  from  all  of  them. 

His  opponents  held  that  revenue  should 
be  drawn  wholly  from  direct  taxes  on  land. 


Education. 


Contrast  or  Compare  him  with  other 
great  men. 

These  comparisons,  etc.,  are  naturally 
limited  by  what  the  teacher  has  done  in 
previous  lessons  on  biography. 

II.  I.  (a)  These  show  his  wen^a/ qualities. 

(b)  These  facts  reveal  his  personal  quali- 
ties. 

(c)  These  his  parliamentary  qualities. 
Briefly    show    the    influence    of    these 

characteristics  upon  him  as  Prime  Minister. 

2.  Describe  his  peace  policy  and  show — 

(a)  Its  success.  The  country  daily  grew 
more  wealthy ;  taxes  were  light ;  trade  was 
flourishing.  Quote  his  proud  boast  expressed 
in  II.  2.  (a)  (2).  Point  out  that  he  under- 
stood the  truest  interests  of  his  country 
better  than  any  of  his  contemporaries. 

(b)  His  foresight.  The  Spanish  war 
ended  disastrously.  He  maintained  that  a 
nation  never  gained  anything  by  war. 
Point  out  that  his  opinion  expressed  in  II. 
2.  {a)  (i)  became  true,  and  justified  his 
policy  as  expressed  in  II.  2.  {a)  (3). 

(c)  His  obstinacy.  He  took  no  interest 
in  foreign  policy.  Show  that  this  was  one 
of  the  chief  factors  in  his  downfall. 

Compare  with  Mr.  Gladstone. 

(b)  Put  these  facts  about  his  bribery  be- 
fore the  class.  State  the  circumstances 
which  led  to  it. 

(i)  The  fierce  opposition  he  had  to  face. 

(2)  The  ease   with   which  it  could  be 
done. 

(3)  That  it  was  an  established  practice. 

(4)  His  too  great  love  of  power. 

(5)  The  lack  of  publicity. 

Give  the  true  history  of  the  famous 
phrase  {b)  (4).  The  Opposition  were  storm- 
ing at  him  over  this  charge,  when  he  re- 
torted :  "  All  these  men  have  their  price  ". 

"  He  durst  do  right,  but  he  durst  do 
wrong." 

An  honest  man.  In  an  age  of  bribery  he 
was  beyond  bribes  himself,  and  died  a  poor 
man,  heavily  in  debt. 

3.  (a)  and  {b)  Show  that  this  was  impos- 
sible in  his  day,  but  that  it  has  all  been  done 
since.  Both  in  this  and  in  his  Free  Trade 
policy  he  was  in  advance  of  his  times.  An- 
other testimony  to  his  wonderful  foresight 
and  excellent  businessicapacity .  Show  that 
the  justification  of  his  policy  is  to  be  found 
in  our  day  rather  than  in  his  own  ;  and  that 
so  firmly  did  he  establish  the  national 
credit,  that  the  public  creditors  began  to 
contend  who  should  be  last  paid. 


DAT£S  IN  HISTORV. 

Whilst  warring  justly  against  "  cramming,"  we  must  not  be 
led  to  disregard  dates.      Some  knowledge  of  dates  is  absolutely 


HISTORY. 


269 


essential  to  an  intelligent  comprehension  of  history.  They  are 
supposed  to  bear  the  same  relation  to  history  that  the  multiplica- 
tion table  bears  to  arithmetic.  They  are  also  called  one  of  the 
eyes  of  history. 

But  it  is  useless  to  learn  dates  unless  the  events  associated 
with  them  are  learned  also.  Talk  of  the  event,  explain  and  illustrate 
it,  and  the  date  will  become  an  enclitic  to  the  event.  The  dates  are 
best  learnt  through  the  events ;  not  the  events  through  the  dates. 

Mnemonics  are  not  recommended  as  a  rule.  Often  they  want 
interpreting  and  learning  themselves.  Sometimes  the  mnemonic 
is  remembered  whilst  the  key  is  lost,  and,  speaking  generally,  it  is 
doubtful  if  much  is  gained  by  their  use.  The  best  mnemonics  are 
interest  and  repetition.  There  must  be  plenty  of  repetition,  and 
the  dates  repeated  must  be  few  and  important ;  but  the  repetition 
should  follow,  not  precede,  the  events.  Properly  used,  the  dates 
may  afford  good  training  for  the  exercise  of  memory. 

The  chronological  system  of  Mr.  David  Nasmith,  Q.C.,  is  a 
specimen  of  a  good  mnemonic  system,  which  is  simple  and  in- 
genious. It  has  this  to  recommend  it,  that  it  is  based  on  space 
relations,  and  so  presents  a  picture  to  the  eye.     It  is  as  follows  : — 

Each  decade  is  divided  into  nine  squares,  arranged  in  three 
rows  of  three  each.  These  squares 
are  surmounted  by  a  top  border, 
which  always  begins  the  decade ; 
i.e.,  contains  the  cyphers  (o's). 
It  will  then  be  observed  that  the 
ones  and  the  nines  are  at  opposite 
corners,  as  are  also  the  sevens  and 
the  threes,  and  that  the  five  is  always 
in  the  middle.  It  is  claimed  for  this 
method  that  after  a  little  practice 
the  difficulty  is  not  to  remember  but 
to  forget.  The  event  desired  to  be 
remembered  should  be  entered  under 
its  proper  date  in  the  square.  Pro- 
fessor Meiklejohn  has  paid  it  the  great  compliment  of  adopting  it 
in  his  history. 

THE  BAIJiAD  IN  HISTOR7. 

I.  Its  Uses. — Its  chief  uses  in  the  teaching  of  history  may  be 
thus  briefly  enumerated  : — 


1880 

I88I 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

270  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

1.  It  adds  interest  to  the  study;  for  it  presents  history  in  its 
most  attractive  form. 

2.  From  the  association  of  rhyme,  rhythm,  and  romance  it 
becomes  easier  to  remember  than  history  taught  in  the  ordinary 
form. 

3.  There  is  generally  an  intrinsic  charm  in  a  ballad  from  its 
quaintness  or  simplicity,  or  its  subject. 

4.  A  ballad  answers  one  of  the  best  purposes  of  history,  for  it 
develops  and  encourages  patriotism — a  love  and  pride  in  the 
country,  its  people,  and  their  achievements. 

5.  It  is  an  easy  and  favourable  method  for  cultivating  a  love 
for  poetry. 

6.  It  cultivates  the  social  affections — pity,  admiration,  and 
sympathy  all  being  stirred. 

7.  It  preserves  words  and  forms,  of  which  it  would  not  be  very 
easy  to  produce  examples  in  other  branches  of  literature. 

II.  Its  Description. — It  will  be  necessary  to  make  the 
children  thoroughly  understand  what  a  ballad  is,  at  least  in  the 
higher  classes. 

1.  What  is  it  ? — Originally  it  was  a  short  narrative  poem,  with  something  of 
both  the  lyric  and  the  epic  in  it.  In  fact,  it  was  a  sort  of  minor  epic  reciting  in 
verse,  and  was  usually  designed  to  be  rehearsed  in  musical  recitative,  accom- 
panied by  the  harp. 

Before  giving  this  description  briefly  explain  the  terms  "  lyric  "  and  "  epic  ". 
Probably  "  recitative  "  will  also  require  explanation. 

2.  Its  Subjects. — These  were  epic  in  their  nature,  and  usually  dealt  with  the 
adventures  of  lovers  and  the  mysteries  of  fairyland. 

3.  Its  Home. — It  was  chiefly  used  by  the  minstrels  of  the  borders  of 
England,  Scotland,  Scandinavia,  and  Spain.  But  the  true  home  of  the  ballad 
in  our  country  was  the  northern  part  of  England  and  the  southern  part  of 
Scotland. 

Point  out  these  places  on  the  map,  and  explain  the  term  "  minstrel  ". 

i.  Their  Quality. — The  Scotch  are  generally  superior  to  the  English,  and 
the  Scandinavian  to  all.  The  literary  and  dialectic  (explain)  peculiarities  of  the 
Scotch  were  most  probably  copied  from  the  Scandinavian  bards,  for  they 
resemble  each  other  both  in  form  and  language. 

5.  Their  Popularity. — They  were  immensely  popular  with  the  people,  who 
were  the  custodians  and  guardians  of  them.  The  Normans  despised  the 
nature  of  poetry,  because  they  did  not  understand  it,  and  so  they  were  left 
entirely  to  the  people,  from  whom  they  have  retained  their  simple  and  popular 
character.  Then  they  were  recited  by  their  beloved  minstrels,  dealt  with  sub- 
jects which  were  popular  and  fascinating,  possessed  certain  peculiarities  which 
were  indicative  of  the  people  themselves,  and  were  often  set  to  dance  music. 

III.  The  Choice  of  Ballads. 

A.  For  the  Lower  Standards. — The  following  principles 
should  guide  their  selection  :  — 

1.  The  subjects  should  be  simple  enough  to  inte^-est  the  children. 

2.  The  incidents  should  be  such  as  would  excite  their  sympathy. 


HISTORY.  271 

3,  The  more  painful  sides  of  history  should  be  omitted. 

4.  Explanation  and  sometimes  abridgment  will  be  necessary. 

Guided  by  the  above  principles,  the  following  list  will  most  probably  be 
found  suitable  : — 

(a)  The  Mother's  Book by  C.  M.  Yonge. 

(6)  The  Battle  of  Evesham    ------„  F.  T.  Palgrave. 

(c)  Wickliffe's  Bible „  G.  White. 

(d)  The  True  History  of  Sir  Richard  Whittington     -    „  Author  oijohn  Halifax. 

(e)  The  Queen's  Oak „  C.  M.  Yonge. 

if)  The  Spanish  Armada „  G.  E.  Maunsell. 

Ig)  Victoria's  Promise ,,  C.  J.  Coleridge. 

B.  For  the  Higher  Standards. — There  is  not  a  large  number 
to  choose  from,  but  the  same  principles  should  regulate  their 
choice  as  for  the  lower  standards.  Copious  notes,  as  a  rule,  will 
be  necessary  for  Scottish  ballads  if  chosen. 

(a)  Boadicea by  W.  Cooper. 

(6)  Alfred  the  Harper „    J.Sterling. 

(c)  The  Curfew  Song  of  England „     Mrs.  Hemans. 

(d)  Robin  Hood  and  Allan-a-dale Old  ballad 

(e)  Chevy  Chase Old  ballad 


(/)  Joan  of  Arc by  F.  T.  Palgrave. 

ig)  The  Battle  of  Flodden     -------„     T.  Dela 

(h)  The  Death  of  Essex Old  ballad. 


'he  Battle  of  Flodden     -------„     T.  Delaney. 

he  Death  of  Essex Old  ballad. 

(i)  The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers      -        -        -        -  by  Mrs.  Hemans. 

BATTIiEiS. 

I.  Their  Use  in  Teaching. — These  incidents  may  be  made  in- 
structive if  properly  handled.  The  teacher  must  guard  against 
the  undue  preponderance  of  the  emotional  element.  The  feelings 
oi  patriotism,  admiration  for  courage  and  suffering,  and  all  the  finer 
traits  of  human  nature  which  are  supposed  to  be  evoked  by 
battles,  should  be  allowed  their  due  share  of  attention  and  exist- 
ence ;  but  the  intellectual  value  must  not  be  overlooked.  It  is 
suggested  that  some  such  treatment  as  the  following  should  be 
adopted  :— 

n.  Instruction. — A  brief  description  of  the  campaign  should 
be  given,  leading  up  to  the  particular  battle  in  question.  This 
will  arouse  interest.  They  should  then  be  told  distinctly  the 
parties  engaged  in  this  particular  battle,  and  the  names  of  the 
leaders  on  either  side.  A  rough  map  should  be  drawn  on  the 
B.B.  showing  the  relative  positions  of  the  contending  forces.  The 
battle  should  then  be  described  in  sufficient  detail  to  give  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  event,  and  to  maintain  the  interest  which  has 
already  been  evoked.  A  careful  use  of  any  pictures  on  the  subject 
could  be  made  with  advantage. 

m.  Education.  -The  teacher  should  then  try  to  make  due 
profit  out  of  it.  For  this  purpose  he  should  place  the  causes  and 
the  results  before  the  class. 


272  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

1.  Causes. — Why  were  the  armies  opposed  ?  Give  the  causes.  Then  show 
the  many  interests  always  tending  for  war — standing  armies,  miUtary  and  naval 
classes,  the  ambitions  of  sovereigns  or  politicians,  portions  of  the  press,  inter- 
national greed  and  jealousy,  contractors,  aggressive  commerce,  feminine 
admiration  for  soldiers,  the  craving  of  the  masses  for  change  or  excitement,  and 
other  causes. 

2.  War. — Why  war  ?  Ask  for  better  methods  of  settling  disputes.  Discuss 
briefly  their  degree  of  practicability.  Show  that  war  has  been  the  custom  for 
ages  in  such  cases.  Point  to  modern  cases  of  arbitration.  Elicit  and  regulate 
opinion  on  the  value  and  morality  of  war  versus  arbitration.  Why  is  war  more 
general  than  arbitration  ? 

(fl)  Because  of  necessity.      In  most  cases,  at  present,  other  methods  are  im- 
practicable. 
(6)  Custom.     This  has  already  been  referred  to. 

(c)  Literature  often  encourages  it,  from  the  Bible  down  to  the  local  newspaper. 
\d)  Refer  generally  to  the  "  interests  "  mentioned  in  (i). 

3.  Results. — Some  of  these,  like  death,  sickness,  poverty,  loss  of  trade,  and 
increase  of  taxation,  can  easily  be  obtained  from  the  class,  especially  if  previous 
lessons  on  any  battles  have  been  given.  The  other,  specific  and  historic  results, 
both  direct,  as  embodied  in  treaties,  and  indirect,  as  arising  out  of  the  treaties 
[e.g.,  the  bitter  feeling  engendered  between  countries,  as  between  France  and 
Germany),  should  be  told  and  impressed  on  the  children. 

OUR  INSTITUTIONS. 

Few  teachers  are  free  from  the  cramping  effect  of  codes  and  set 
syllabuses  ;  perhaps,  still  fewer  from  examinations.  Where  these 
things  exist,  the  teacher  who  wishes  to  preserve  his  official  exist- 
ence will  always  be  largely  guided  in  his  teaching  by  them.  But 
where  the  teacher  is  a  free  agent,  he  may  adopt  the  living 
method  of  teaching,  which  is  the  best  educationally  and  the  most 
interesting.  He  starts  with  a  contemporaneous  fact — a  building, 
a  personage,  an  institution — and  traces  this  fact  back  to  its  very 
source.  This  method  adheres  to  the  sequence  of  teaching  by 
starting  with  the  known  and  proceeding  to  the  unknown.  It 
vitalises  the  teaching  by  placing  concrete  objects  before  the  class 
as  a  starting  point,  and  it  brings  a  living  interest  to  bear  upon  the 
work.     Such  lessons  would  deal  with  : — 

1.  Our  Institutions. — These  would  include  Parliament,  our 
Courts  of  Justice,  our  Fire  Brigade,  Local  Bodies  (Vestry,  Corpora- 
tion, School  Boards,  Asylum  Boards,  Charity  Commissioners, 
etc.),  our  Army,  Navy,  Militia,  and  Volunteers. 

2.  Our  Historic  Buildings. — These  would  include  such  places 
as  the  Tower  of  London,  our  Cathedrals,  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, our  famous  Castles,  Universities,  Palaces,  Museums,  Picture 
Galleries,  etc. 

3.  Historic  Personages. — See  under  the  various  remarks  in 
this  chapter  about  Biography. 

4.  Our  Towns. — Their  Growth,  Trade,  Development,  etc. 


HISTORY. 


273 


5.  Inventions. — These  would  embrace  such  things  as  the  Rail- 
way, Steamboat,  Photography,  the  various  Electrical  Inventions,  etc. 

6.  Education. — As  carried  out  by  the  School,  Church,  Press, 
Literature,  the  Stage,  and  our  social  institutions. 

Such  lessons  must  necessarily  be  largely  descriptive,  so  that 
the  teacher  will  need  to  cultivate  his  powers  of  word-painting. 
They  are  primarily  lessons  for  imparting  information,  but  their 
moral  and  intellectual  sides  need  not  be  absent.  Above  all,  they 
are  calculated  to  make  the  pupils  take  a  budding  interest  in  the 
facts  which  surround  them,  and  to  develop  a  spirit  of  inquiry,  and 
a  power  of  social  and  political  observation.  They  are  essentially 
the  type  of  lesson  necessary  to  impress  upon  the  schoolboy  what 
will  be  his  rights  and  responsibilities  when  he  becomes  a  citizen. 
An  illustrative  lesson  on  the  Policeman  and  another  on  an  Act 
of  Parliament  follow. 

NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  THE  POLICEMAN. 


Information. 


I.  What  he  is.  A  man  appointed  to 
preserve  order  and  apprehend  offenders. 
A  member  of  an  organised  force  maintain- 
ing order  and  enforcing  the  laws. 

II.  His  Power.     He  can— 

1.  Suppress  unlicensed  theatres. 

2.  Suppress  illegal  sport,  like  cock  fight- 
ing, prize  fighting,  etc. 

3.  Suppress  gaming  houses. 

4.  Superintend  places  of  public  resort. 

5.  Regulate  traffic. 

6.  Regulate  public  processions. 

7.  He  can  arrest  on  his  own  authority, 
and  without  a  warrant,  any  person  whom  he 
may  see  committing  certain  specific  acts  of 
annoyance  in  a  public  thoroughfare. 

Terms  Explained. 

Warrant.  A  document  or  order  author- 
ising an  officer  to  seize  an  offender  and 
bring  him  to  justice. 

Treason.  The  offence  of  attempting  to 
overthrow  or  betray  the  government  of  the 
State  to  which  the  offender  owes  allegiance. 
Conspiring  against  the  lives  of  the  royal 
family,  certain  of  the  royal  councillors  and 
judges  ;  counterfeiting  the  royal  seal,  signet, 
or  coin. 

Felony.  An  offence  which  occasions  a 
total  loss  of  either  lands  or  goods,  or  both, 
at  the  common  law,  and  to  which  capital 
or  other  punishment  may  be  added  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  guilt. 

Misdemeanour.  A  less  offence  than  a 
felony  or  a  crime. 


Education. 


1.  This  can  be  found  out  by  questioning. 
Correct  where  necessary. 

The  teacher  will  probably  get  some  novel 
attributes  assigned  to  the  policeman. 

II.  I.  Refer  to  local  theatre.  It  must 
have  a  licence,  otherwise  police  would  close 
it.     Tell  who  grants  this  licence. 

2.  Point  out  the  brutal  nature  of  these 
sports.  Show  how  public  opinion  has  im- 
proved on  the  point  since  the  days  when 
these  sports  were  under  the  special  patron- 
age of  the  upper  classes. 

3.  This  is  a  recurring  incident.  Read  a 
suitable  account  from  the  newspapers. 
Question  on  the  policy  and  morality  of 
gaming. 

4.  Elicit  by  questioning  and  by  references 
to  their  own  experience  the  necessity  for 
this.  Rowdyism,  drunkenness,  etc.,  apt  to 
break  out  at  times. 

5.  This  will  be  within  the  knowledge  of 
all  children  who  live  in  busy  towns. 

6.  Refer  to  the  London  processions ; 
Lord  Mayor's  show ;  Mayday  processions ; 
political  processions  to  Trafalgar  Square 
and  Hyde  Park.  Some  forbidden;  others 
not.  Why  ?  Object,  time,  nature,  place, 
have  to  be  considered. 

7.  Explain  warrant,  treason,  felony,  mis- 
demeanour. If  the  class  is  a  lower  one 
simplify  these  meanings. 

A  warrant  necessary  for  an  arrest  for  a 
I  misdcmeanonr.  Explain  briefly  the  graver 
nature  of  the  two  first  offences. 
'  Police  sometimes  arrest  men  for  fighting, 
1  and  sometimes  not.  Why  ?  Show  that 
I  the  power  to  arrest  is  for  the  purpose  of 

8 


274  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  THE  POLICEMAN— cow^mwe^L 


Information. 


in.  His  Qualifications. 

1.  Unblemished  character. 

2.  IntelHgence.  This  is  tested  by  ex- 
amination. 

3.  Physically  sound,  of  standard  height 
and  chest  development. 

4.  Well  drilled  and  instructed  in  his 
duties. 

He  is  then  appointed  to  a  beat. 

lY.  His  History. 

1.  Previous  to  Sir  Robert  Peel's  time 
characters  of  the  worst  and  lowest  descrip- 
tion often  served.  He  purified  and  reorgan- 
ised them  in  1829. 

2.  Early  in  the  queen's  reign  a  county 
constabulary  was  formed. 

3.  Peace  and  order  were  previously  main- 
tained by  the  high  sheriffs  of  the  counties, 
their  deputies,  and  the  constables  appointed 
by  the  parishes. 

4.  In  England,  from  the  time  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  kings,  an  organisation,  partly 
voluntary  in  its  character,  existed  for  the 
repression  of  crime,  the  arrest  of  criminals, 
and  the  maintenance  of  good  order. 

5.  In  Rome,  in  the  time  of  Augustus, 
police  became  a  special  institution. 

6.  Traces  of  police  organisation  found  in 
ancient  Egypt  and  the  Mosaic  Law. 


Education. 


preserving  the  peace,  and  not  for  punish- 
ment, therefore  they  cannot  arrest  unless 
they  catch  red-handed. 

III.  Show  the  necessity  for  these  qualities. 

1.  In  London  the  police  have  millions  of 
people,  and  property  worth  millions  of 
money,  under  their  care.  Night  duty  would 
afford  special  facilities  for  a  dishonest  man. 

2.  They  are  peripatetic  inquiry  officers, 
have  to  advise,  coax,  etc.,  and  often  to  give 
evidence  in  a  court  of  law. 

3.  The  work  is  fatiguing;  hours  long; 
risks  from  weather,  street  rows,  burglars, 
etc.,  very  great  at  times. 

Explain  beat. 

A  Second  Lesson  had  better  be  de- 
voted to  his  History. 

IV.  Since  Peel's  time  the  police  have 
been  a  splendid  agency  for  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  created. 

This  part  of  the  lesson  will  be  descriptive. 

The  teacher  should  show  how  each  step 
from  their  first  beginnings  has  been  an  im- 
provement. The  voluntary  agency  failed, 
hence  the  formation  of  a  constabulary. 

Show  the  necessity  for  some  protective 
force  at  all  periods  of  our  history. 

Compare  them  with  the  military  and 
quasi-military  nature  of  foreign  policemen. 

To  a  higher  class  the  derivation  of  the 
word  might  be  given. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  many  of  our 
laws  and  institutions  are  based  on  those  of 
Rome  (ancient).  Use  as  many  pictorial 
illustrations  as  possible,  and  arouse  sym- 
pathy with  policemen  by  dwelling  on  the 
trying  nature  of  their  work. 


NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  THE  PASSING  OF  A  BILL  THROUGH 
PARLIAMENT. 


Information. 


I.  Origin. 

A  bill  generally  takes  its  origin  among 
the  people — 

1.  To  meet  some  popular  demand. 

2.  To  remove  some  injustice. 

3.  To  get  some  right  recognised  and 
granted. 

After  discussion  and  education  by  the 
press  and  on  the  platform,  it  is  formulated 
in  the  shape  of  a  bill. 

IL  First  Reading. 

The  bill  is  formally  introduced  to  the 
House,  and  read  without  any  discussion. 
It  is  then  ordered  to  be  printed  and  circu- 
lated among  the  members  for  their  study 
and  consideration.  I 


Teaching. 


I.  The  teacher  first  points  out  the  con- 
ception and  the  stages  of  growth  of  public 
opinion  on  the  question. 

(a)  By  the  press  or  platform,  or  both. 
(6)  By   public   and    private    discussion 
first,  then  by  platform  and  press. 

(c)  Then  some  M.P.  formulates  these 
demands,  and  introduces  them  to  the 
House  in  the  form  of  a  bill. 

(d)  The  bill  is  almost  invariably 
"  backed,"  i.e.,  backed  up  or  sup- 
ported by  the  names  of  certain  other 
M.P.'s  written  on  its  back. 

II.  Why  not  discussed  the  first  time  ? 

1.  The  form  of  the  bill  is  new  to  the  great 
majority  of  the  members. 

2.  Hence  it  would  be  unfair  to  discuss  it 
before   the  members   had   prepared  them- 


HISTORY.  275 

LESSON  ON  THE  PASSING  OF  A  BILL  THROUGH  PARLIAMENT— cott^mwed. 


Information. 


III.  Second  Reading. 

A  date"  is  then  fixed  by  the  Government 
for  its  second  reading.  The  bill  is  keenly 
debated  as  a  rule  at  this  stage  ;  and  if  it 
passes  the  second  reading,  virtually  the  bill 
has  succeeded  so  far  as,  the  "House"  is 
concerned  in  which  it  was  first  introduced. 

lY.  Committee  Stage. 

The  House  now  resolves  itself  into  a 
Committee  for  further  discussion  and  pro- 
bable modification  of  the  bill ;  to  expand  or 
contract  its  scope  ;  to  alter  it  in  some  of  its 
details.  The  alterations  desired  are  effected 
by  what  are  called  amendments. 

An  amendment  is  a  motion  put  before  the 
House  by  a  member,  in  which  motion  he 
seeks  to  alter  or  amend  some  detail  or 
principle  of  the  bill. 

V.  Third  Reading. 

Having  passed  through  the  Committee 
stage,  the  amended  bill  is  generally  read 
and  voted  a  third  time  without  any  debate. 

YL  The  Other  House. 

The  bill  is  then  sent  to  the  other  House 
to  go  through  the  same  stages  as  in  the 
first  House.     The  two  Houses  are — 

(i)  The  House  of  Commons. 

(2)  The  House  of  Lords. 

It  may  be  defeated  in  the  second  House 
on  its  second  reading,  when  it  fails  to  be- 
come an  act  and  dies  as  a  bill.  Or  it  may 
be  further  amended  in  Committee  in  the 
second  House.     It  generally  is. 

Money  bills  cannot  originate  in  the 
Lords.  This  is  the  only  limitation  to  the 
free  introduction  of  bills  into  either  House. 
This  practically  makes  the  House  of  Com- 
mons the  more  powerful  of  the  two. 

YIL  Royal  Assent. 

The  bill  is  then  sent  to  the  sovereign  for 
assent.  This  is  now  never  refused.  In 
days  gone  by  it  was  not  always  so;  but 
royal  opposition  proved  an  expensive  and 
dangerous  luxury,  so  that  the  assent  of  the 
sovereign  may  now  be  considered  merely 
formal.  Having  received  the  royal  assent, 
the  bill  now  blossoms  into  an  Act  of  Par- 
liament, and  becomes  a  law  binding  on  all. 


Teaching. 


selves  to  support  or  oppose  it.  The  class 
will  readily  understand  these  two  state- 
ments. 

III.  Get  the  class  to  observe  the  follow- 
ing facts : — 

1.  The  bill  is  now  discussed  because  the 
members  have  had  ample  time  to  study  its 
provisions. 

2.  It  is  not,  as  a  rule,  further  opposed, 
(fl)  Because  its  discussion  has  generally 

been  exhaustive. 
(b)  Further  opposition  would  be  a  waste 
of  public  time  (obstruction) ;  for  the 
same  arguments  would  be  repeated, 
to  meet  with  the  same  result. 

IV.  Make  the  class  understand  that  al- 
though the  bill  has  passed  its  second  read- 
ing, and  the  general  principle  of  the  bill  has 
been  accepted  by  a  majority,  yet  the  altera- 
tion of  some  of  its  details  may  be  much 
desired,  and  so  it  may  be  keenly  contested 
by  a  portion  of  the  members. 

Explain  Committee.  Now  a  member  may 
speak  several  times  to  the  bill ;  whereas,  in 
the  other  stages,  the  strict  laws  of  debate 
are  adhered  to,  and  a  member  may  only 
speak  once. 

Explain  amendment, And  give  illustrations. 

The  report  stage  is  omitted  for  a  later 
period. 

(i)  It  is  less  important. 
(2)  It  is  difficult  to  define. 

V.  The  reason  for  this  was  pointed  out 
in  II.  2. 

VI.  Supposing  the  bill  to  have  originated 
in  the  House  of  Commons  (most  bills  do), 
then  it  would  go  to  the  House  of  Lords. 

guestion  out  the  wisdom  or  policy  of  this, 
xplain  as  follows : — 

The  Commons  represent  the  people. 

The  Lords  the  aristocracy. 

Both  are  existing  parts  of  the  country. 
Both  have  special  interests  to  conserve. 
If  either  alone  made  laws,  the  interests  of 
the  one  body  might  suffer  at  the  expense  of 
the  other.  Each  House  is  then  a  check 
upon  the  selfishness  or  injustice  of  the  other. 

Explain  to  the  class  the  power  of  the 
purse.  The  Government  of  a  country  is  a 
business,  and  no  business  can  go  on  without 
money. 

VII.  Note  the  three  elements  comprised 
in  the  word  Parliament:  (i)  Sovereign; 
(2)  Lords;  (3)  Commons.  Let  them  fur- 
ther note  what  would  be  the  result  if  either 
element  possessed  the  sole  power. 

(i)  If  the  sovereign — then  our  govern- 
ment would  be  an  absolute  monarchy. 

(2)  If  the  Lords — an  aristocracy. 

(3)  If  Commons — a  democracy. 

Show  that  it  is  the  blending  of  these 
three  elements  that  constitutes  the  glory  of 
the  English  limited  monarchy. 

Two  lessons  will  probably  be  necessary  to 
deal  with  this  subject. 


276  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Notes  of  Lesson  on  the  passing  of  an  Act  of  Parliament ;  Joan  of  Arc ;  Cardinal 
Wolsey ;  some  battle  in  English  history ;  chief  topic  of  the  reign  of  one  of  the  kings  of 
England. 

2. — Show  the  use  of  ballad  poetry  in  the  teaching  of  history,  and  illustrate  your 
statement  by  some  historical  ballad. 

3. — Write  out  the  chief  topics  to  be  selected  for  a  lesson  on  the  reign  of  one  of  the 
kings  of  England. 

4. — What  plan  would  you  follow  in  giving  a  description  of  some  famous  battle  ? 
Illustrate  your  answer  by  the  battle  of  Flodden  or  Waterloo. 

5. — Select  points  in  the  character  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  or  Robert  Bruce,  or  Nelson, 
that  would  be  specially  attractive  to  children,  and  write  out  some  anecdote  by  which 
you  would  illustrate  each  point. 

6. — Write  out  those  dates  of  events  in  English  history  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury which  you  consider  worthy  of  being  committed  to  memory  by  children,  and  give 
reasons  for  your  selection. 

7. — Name  some  stories  from  English  history  that  you  have  found  to  be  most 
attractive  to  young  children,  and  explain  simply  the  causes  of  their  attractiveness. 

8. — It  is  sometimes  said  that  one  of  the  best  ways  of  teaching  history  is  by  means 
of  biography.  Explain  this.  Name  five  or  six  persons  whose  biography  would  throw 
great  light  on  the  history  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  give  a  slight  sketch  of  one  such 
biography. 

9. — In  giving  a  lesson  on  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  show  what  use  you  would  make 
of  comparison,  and  contrast  with  any  other  character  in  history. 

10. — In  teaching  history,  say  what  use,  if  any,  you  would  make  of  chronological 
tables.  Is  it  better  to  learn  the  date  before  or  after  the  pupil  knows  something  of  an 
event,  and  becomes  interested  in  it?     Give  your  reasons. 


277 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

ENGLISH. 

The  Uses  of  Grrammar. — It  must  be  remembered  that 
grammar  is  not  absolutely  essential,  although  it  is  very  desirable ; 
for  we  could,  and  many  of  us  do,  go  on  speaking  and  writing  our 
own  language  more  or  less  correctly  without  ever  having  received 
a  grammar  lesson.  But  there  are  certain  advantages  arising 
from  its  use,  which  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  : — 

1.  It  helps  the  pupil  to  speak  his  own  hinguage  correctly. 

2.  It  is  an  aid  to  composition,  so  far  as  readiness,  ease,  and  accuracy  are 

concerned.     The  vocabulary  is  extended. 

3.  In    learning   a  language  it  is  economical,   for   it  "  abridges  labour    by 

generalising  everything  that  can  be  generalised  ". 

4.  It  is  the  logic  of  the  elementary  school.     Bain  disputes  this,   but  the 

opinion  still  remains.  The  higher  faculties  are  called  into  play,  for 
it  makes  the  pupils  familiar  with  the  meaning,  the  structure,  the 
grammatical  and  logical  relations,  and  the  right  use  of  words. 

5.  Trench's  Study  on  Words  shows  us  also  how  very  useful  and  interesting 

the  history  of  many  words  may  be,  and  what  a  g^eat  light  they  may 
throw  upon  the  history  of  the  people.  In  fact,  many  words  are 
"  sidelights  ''  to  history. 

Difficulties  in  Teaching. — "  The  difficulties  of  grammar  are 

the  difficulties  of  all  science — generalities  couched  in   technical 

language."       The    dijficulties    arising  out  of  language    itself    are 

great,     for   children    in    elementary    schools    rarely    hear    good 

English  outside  the  school.     Their  vocabulary  is  very  limited,  and 

there    is  little  or  no  power  of  arrangement  in  the  formation    of 

their  sentences.       Nor   are   the  mental  difficulties   any   less.      It 

requires  greater  mental  power  than  most  school  subjects.       Bain 

considers  it  harder  than  arithmetic,  and  says  it  is  probably  on  a 

par  with  the  beginnings  of  algebra  and  geometry.      It  is  a  double 

acquisition,  for  there  is  the  union  of  language  with  thought.      The 

mind  is  divided  between  the  two,  and  this  is  a  difficulty.       Some 

of  its  stages  require  great  power  of  concentration,  and  this  is  a  thing 

of  slow  growth.       Hence  it  is  not  advisable  to  begin  teaching  the 

subject  too  early.      In  the  primary  schools  it  begins  with  the 


278  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

earliest  standard,  where  the  tender  age  of  the  children  handicaps 
them  severely  in  the  study  of  such  a  subject.  Finally  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  drudgery  in  the  acquirement  of  derivation,  classification, 
and  the  rules  of  syntax.  A  skilful  teacher  may  gild  the  drudging 
pill,  but  it  has  to  be  taken,  and  drudgery  is  not  a  strong  point 
with  many. 

ORDER  OF  TEACHING  TIIE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

The  parts  of  speech  should  be  taught  in  the  following  order 
for  the  reasons  given  in  each  case  : — 

I.   Noun,  2.  Verb.  3.  Adjective.  4.  Adverb. 

5.   Pronoun.  6.   Conjunction.    7.  Preposition.  8.  Interjection. 

Noun  and  Verb. — Every  sentence  is  composed  of  two  essential 
parts — the  subject  and  predicate.  In  their  simplest  forms  these 
are  nouns  and  verbs  ;  hence  the  noun  (as  the  subject)  and  the  verb 
(as  the  predicate)  should  be  taught  first.  A  few  preliminary 
lessons  might  be  given  separately  on  the  noun,  but  the  verb  is 
always  better  taught  with  the  assistance  of  the  noun. 

The  teacher  will  have  little  difficulty  in  getting  the  class  to 
pick  out  concrete  nouns,  for  the  material  objects  which  they  mark 
surround  the  children  on  every  side.  The  objects  can  be  shown, 
their  names  given,  and  the  definition  of  a  noun  thus  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  class.  Perhaps  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  remind 
the  teacher  that  the  name  of  the  object  is  the  noun,  and  not  the 
object  itself.  But  more  difficulty  is  experienced  with  abstract 
nouns.  These  are  best  taught  in  conjunction  with  adjectives  and 
other  parts  of  speech  from  which  they  are  derived.  But  adjectives 
are  not  required  till  the  Third  Standard,  whilst  nouns  appear  in 
the  curriculum  for  the  First  Standard.  Still  the  teacher  may 
avail  himself  of  these  aiding  words  without  giving  their  technical 
names.  The  concrete  nouns  can  also  be  utilised  in  the  building  up 
of  simple  sentences,  which  is  the  best  and  proper  way  of  teaching 
this  subject.     Thus  : — 

1.  Take  a  common  concrete  noun — man. 

2.  Affix  qualities  to  this  word  with  the  assistance  of  the  class  ;  e.g.  :  — 

good  man  dear  book 

strong  man  large  book 

kind  man  pretty  book 

3.  Then  derive  the  abstract  noun  by  questioning.     The  questioning  is  neces- 

sarily vague,  but  it  is  suggestive  and  sufficient. 
A  good  man  is  one  who  has  "i— goodness. 
A  strong  man  is  one  who  has  .•* — strength. 
A  kind  roar}  is  orje  who  ha§  ? — kindness. 


ENGLISH.  279 

4.  Then  tell  the  class  that  these  words— goodness,  strength,  and  kindness — 
are  abstract  nouns,  or  nouns  simply.  A  number  of  exercises  dealt  with 
in  this  way  will  help  appreciably  to  remove  any  difficulty  surrounding 
the  recognition  of  abstract  nouns. 

The  pointing  out  of  verbs  is  not  required  until  Standard  II., 
but  the  teacher  is  advised  to  do  all  his  teaching  through  the  sentence, 
and  very  simple  analysis,  so  that  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  deal 
with  the  verb  in  Standard  I.  Specimen  lessons  follow  later  on,  on 
the  verb,  the  simple  predicate,  and  the  adjective,  which  the  young 
teacher  is  advised  to  study  and  use. 

The  Adjective. — We  only  know  things  by  their  qualities  ;  hence 
next  to  knowing  the  sign  of  the  thing  itself,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  words  which  express  those  qualities.  There  is  no  recognised 
distinction  between  things  until  we  begin  to  enumerate  their 
attributes,  and  adjectives  are  the  words  which  specify  these  attri- 
butes. Adjectives  of  quality  should  be  taught  first,  then  quantity, 
and  possessives  and  demonstratives  last. 

The  Adverb. — The  adverb  modifies  and  extends  the  meaning 
of  the  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb.  As  we  have  recog- 
nised the  necessity  for  the  early  introduction  of  adjectives,  because 
they  mark  the  necessary  distinctions  between  things,  so  it  is  now 
equally  necessary  to  introduce  adverbs  to  modify  the  actions 
expressed  by  the  verbs,  and  to  distinguish  the  infinite  variety  of 
ways  in  which  an  action  done  or  suffered  may  be  modified. 

The  Pronoun. — These  words  might  now  be  introduced,  as  they 
are  largely  used  to  avoid  the  unpleasant  repetition  of  the  nouns. 
They  are  not  a  necessity,  but  rather  a  luxury,  hence  they  give 
way  to  the  more  essential  words  taught  before  them.  The  per- 
sonal pronouns  should  be  taught  first,  whilst  the  demonstratives 
and  possessives  should  be  taught  by  comparison  and  contrast 
with  the  demonstrative  and  possessive  adjectives  through  the 
medium  of  sentences. 

The  Conjunction. — It  is,  perhaps,  best  to  take  the  conjunction 
next,  as  it  enables  us  to  consider  compound  and  complex 
sentences,  and  so  opens  a  wider  range  of  sentences,  which  can 
now  be  joined  together,  and  the  various  relations  expressed  between 
these  sentences  can  be  learned. 

The  Preposition. — This  should  come  after  the  conjunction, 
because  it  does  not  lift  us  out  of  the  simple  sentence.  It  shows 
relations  between  words  only,  and  is  therefore  placed  after  the 
conjunction,  which  performs  the  larger  task  of  showing  the  rela- 
tion between  groups  of  words  called  sentences. 


28o 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


The  Interjection. — These  words  are  emotional  luxuries — mere 
expletives,  and  can  with  reason,  ease,  and  profit  be  relegated  to 
the  proper  position  of  all  luxuries — last. 

HOW  TO  TBACH  THE   PREDICATE. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  best  way  to  teach 
grammar,  whether  it  be  the  picking  out  of  nouns  or  verbs,  is  best 
done  through  the  medium  of  the  sentence.  For  this  purpose  it 
will  be  necessary  to  give  a  lesson  on  the  predicate  early  in  the 
course.  One  step  should  be  thoroughly  mastered  before  the  next 
division  of  the  lesson  is  touched,  and  for  this  purpose  plenty  of 
exercises  will  be  required  at  each  step.  In  this  way  the  notes 
might  be  used  for  three  lessons,  each  lesson  being  confined  to  one 
division  of  the  notes,  whilst  the  two  latter  lessons  should  come 
later  on. 


Definitions  and  Examples. 


I.  The  Monosyllabic  Predicate. 

Examples — 

1.  Boys  jump. 

2.  Dogs  bark. 

3.  Birds  fly. 

FIRST  DEFINITION. 
A  predicate   consists    of    a 
word  which  tells  you  what  the 
subject  does. 

II.  Passive  Predicate. 

Examples — 

1.  He  was  struck. 

2.  The  floor  has  been  scrubbed. 

3.  The  bells  were  rung. 

4.  The  table  is  cleared. 

SECOND  DEFINITION. 
A  predicate  may  consist  of 
one  or  more  words  which 
express  the  action  done  by 
the  subject,  or  suffered  by  the 
subject, 


Teaching. 


I.  Write  these  sentences  on  the  B.B. 

I.  Of  what  are  we  talking  here  ?    Boys. 

2  and  3.  Elicit  dogs  and  birds  in  the  same 
manner. 

These  words — boys,  dogs,  and  birds — are 
called  the  subjects  of  our  speech. 

Now,  what  do  you  say  of  each  ? 

1.  Boys— jump  1      Let  the  class  note  that 

2.  Dogs — bark  >all  these  words  express 

3.  Birds — fly  J  actions,  and  that  you 
say,  assert,  or  predicate  (explain  further,  if 
necessary)  actions  of  each  of  the  subjects. 

Now  analyse  the  above  sentences  on  the 
B.B.,  and  let  the  class  suggest  others  for 
further  analysis.  The  scholars  should  then 
be  able  to  give  a  first  definition  of  predicate. 

II.  I.  Let  the  class  pick  out  the  subjects 
in  each  sentence.  Then  the  predicates. 
Help  if  necessary,  and  elicit  by  observation 
that— 

(a)  The  predicate  in  each  sentence  con- 
sists of  two  or  more  words. 

(6)  It  is  in  the  passive  voice ;  i.e.,  it 
suffers  the  action  instead  of  doing  it. 
A  little  skilful  questioning  based  on 
comparison  and  contrast  of  the  active 
and  passive  voices  will  probably  be 
necessary  for  this  step. 

2.  The  class  should  then  orally  analyse 
the  sentences  on  the  B.B.  as  before. 

3.  They  should  then  be  asked  to  suggest 
other  examples  for  analysis. 

4.  They  then  should  be  again  asked  for  a 
definition,  and  they  should  be  able  to  give 
something  like  the  improved  form  in  the 
second  definition. 

III.  Write  these  examples  on  the  B.B, 
as  before, 


ENGLISH. 


281 


Definitions  and  Examples. 


III.  Verb  « to  be  "  with  Adjective. 

Examples — 

1.  I  am  foolish, 

2.  Thou  art  wise. 

3.  He  is  strong. 

4.  We  are  young. 

FINAL  DEFINITION. 
The  predicate   is   the   word 
(or  words)  in  a  sentence  which 
expresses  Tvhat  is  affirmed  of 
the  subject. 


Teaching. 


(a)  First  get  the  class  to  recognise  that 
am,  art,  is,  and  are,  are  all  parts  of 
the  verb  to  be. 

(b)  Next  demonstrate  by  questioning 
the  "  incomplete  "  notion  conveyed  by 
the  verb  ;  e.g.,  I  am — what  ?  Thou 
art — what?  The  class  will  thus  be 
led  to  see  that  the  verb  to  be  cannot 
form  a  predicate  of  itself,  but  re- 
quires another  word,  or  other  words, 
to  complete  it. 

(c)  Then  let  the  class  parse  the  com- 
pleting words.  They  are  all  ad- 
jectives. 

((/)  Next  elicit  from  a,  b,  and  c,  that 
a  predicate  may  consist  of  the 
verb  to  be  and  an  adjective. 

{e)  The  sentences  should  then  be  ana- 
lysed as  before  on  the  B.B. 

(/)  The  class  should  suggest  other  ex- 
amples for  analysis. 

(g)  They  should  then  be  invited  to  give 
the  final  definition,  which  should  be 
WTitten  on  their  slates  and  learnt. 


HOW  TO  TEACH  THE  AI>JX:CTIVZ:. 

As  laid  down  in  the  Code,  the  adjective  is  not  required  till 
Standard  III.,  but  it  is  advisable  to  teach  it  before  then  if 
grammar  is  taught  at  all.  Let  it  ever  be  remembered  that 
^ammar  should  be  taught  through  the  sentence,  and  in  con- 
junction with  composition,  so  that  the  presence  of  the  adjective 
becomes  almost  a  necessity.  To  keep  children  picking  out  nouns 
for  a  year,  and  then  nouns  and  verbs  for  another  year  before  in- 
troducing the  adjective,  is  neither  educational  nor  profitable. 
The  function  of  the  adjective  can  easily  be  deduced  by  a  choice  of 
suitable  sentences,  and  provisional  and  improving  definitions  can 
be  given  as  the  lesson  goes  on.  These  definitions  must  always  be 
given  by  the  children,  and  not  by  the  teacher.  The  functions 
having  been  discovered,  the  class  might  then  be  led  on  to  classify 
the  words  into  adjectives  of  quality  or  quantity,  etc.  Composition 
exercises  might  then  follow,  and  in  the  end  the  class  ought  to  be 
able  to  give  a  definition  which  should  be  final  and  general.  This 
method  of  teaching  is  illustrated  below,  but  the  notes  there  given 
may  be  used  for  one  or  for  several  lessons,  the  latter  being  the 
more  probable  arrangement.  The  first  lesson  might  end  with  the 
first  definition,  when  a  number  of  exercises  might  be  worked  orally, 
and  afterwards  on  paper  or  slates. 


282 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Definitions  and  Examples. 


I.  Introduction. 

List  of  Nouns  : — 

Boy         Courage 


London 
Teacher,  etc. 


Desk      School 

II.  Function  of  Adjectives. 

Sentences  : — 

1.  Bright  boy. 

2.  Real  courage. 

3.  Foggy  London. 

4.  Dual  desk. 

5.  Board  school. 

6.  Young  teacher. 

7.  Many  apples. 

8.  Six  chairs, 
g.  This  book. 

10.  The  truth. 

FIRST  DEFINITION. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  which  helps 
us  to  distinguish  one  class  of  persons 
or  things  from  another. 

III.  Classification  of  Adjectives. 

1.  Quality.  Bright,  real,  foggy,  board, 
young. 

2.  Quantity.     Dual,  many,  six. 

3.  Demonstrative.     This,  the. 

Other  Examples : — 

1.  Quality.     Good,  bad,  nice,  nasty. 

2.  Quantity.     All,  any,  some,  none. 

3.  Demonstrative.     That,  these,  those. 

IV.  Composition  Exercises. 

1.  The  bright  boy  took  the  prize. 

2.  Real  courage  is  to  be  praised. 

3.  Foggy  London  is  a  mighty  city,  etc. 

Y.  FINAL  DEFINITION. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  with  a 
noun  to  denote  some  distinguishing 
attribute  of  quality  or  quantity,  or 
relation  belonging  to  the  object  or 
thing  for  which  the  noun  stands. 


Teaching. 


I.  Ask  for  some  nouns,  or  let  the  class 
name  some  of  the  common  objects  around 
them.  Something  like  what  is  opposite 
will  be  given.     Write  them  on  the  B.B. 

n.  Deal  with  these  nouns  as  follows  : — 

I.  Boy.  By  questioning  elicit  that  the 
term  is  general  or  common.  If  we  wish 
to  specialise  or  distinguish  the  boy  in  any 
way,  it  is  necessary  to  say  something  more 
about  him ;  e.g.,  tall  boy,  or  short  boy,  or 
bright  boy,  etc.  Lead  the  class  to  see  the 
principle  of  selection,  grouping  or  classifica- 
tion involved  ;  e.g. : — 

The  bright  boy  implies  others  not  bright 
„      tall         „         „         „         „  tall 

,,      short     ,,         ,,         ,,         ,,  short. 

We  have  observed  the  boy  and  noted  a 
special  quality — not  of  the  word  ''boy,"  but 
of  the  boy  himself. 

Deal  with  the  other  examples  in  the 
same  way.  The  distinguishing  word  in 
each  case  is  called  an  adjective. 

The  class  should  now  give  a  preliminary 
definition  of  an  adjective. 

in.  Educe  by  fttrther  questioning  and 
explanation  (if  necessary)  that  some  of  the 
adjectives  indicate — 

1.  Quality.   They  tell  the  kind  of  boy,  etc. 

2.  Quantity.    These  all  deal  with  number. 

3.  Demonstrative.  Give  this  word  and 
explain  that  it  means  "  to  point  out  ". 

Write  the  three  classes  on  the  B.B.,  and 
place  each  word  in  its  right  class. 
Ask  class  for  other  examples. 

IV.  Add  these  examples.  Let  the  class 
affix  a  noun  in  each  case,  and  then  make  a 
complete  sentence  of  each  example.  This 
will  be  a  good  composition  exercise. 

V.  The  class  should  now  be  invited  to 
give  a  final  definition.  This  must  be 
gradually  worked  into  the  desired  form  by 
the  teacher's  aid,  if  necessary.  Further 
explanation  and  more  examples  may  be 
required,  but  the  class  must  give  the  defini- 
tion. 

N.B. — The  attribution  to  the  pronoun  is 
left  for  a  subsequent  lesson. 


THE  ADVERB. 

The  method  laid  down  for  the  teaching  of  the  adverb  is  much 
the  same  in  principle  as  that  for  the  teaching  of  the  adjective. 
The  teacher's  first  task  will  be  to  develop  the  idea  of  the  adverb 
in  connection  with  suitable  sentences.  It  should  be  developed 
with  verbs  first,  as  the  modifying  of  verbs  is  its  primary  function. 
For  this  purpose  simple  sentences  should  be  written  on  the  B.B., 
and  they  should  then  be  expanded  by  the  addition  of  adverbs. 
From  these  expanded  sentences  the  functions  of  the  words  should 


ENGLISH. 


283 


be  deduced,  and  their  classification  made.  A  first  definition  should 
then  be  given.  Its  use  with  adjectives  and  other  adverbs  could 
next  be  taken,  after  which  the  class  ought  to  be  able  to  give  the 
final  definition.  Plenty  oi  exercises  should  accompany  each  stage. 
A  lesson  in  illustration  follows. 


Definitions  and  Examples. 


Develop  the  Idea. 

1.  With  Verbs. 

A.  Suitable  Sentences. 

(a)  You  go. 
{b)  He  sings. 

(c)  She  paints. 

(d)  They  ride. 

(e)  Are  you  sick? 
(/)  You  are  well. 

B.  Expanded  Sentences. 

(a)  You  go  there, 
{b)  He  sings  laell. 

(c)  She  paints  much. 

(d)  They  ride  often. 

(e)  Are  you  sick  ?     No. 
if)  Are  you  well?     Yes. 

C.  Classification. 

(a)  There — place. 
(6)  Well — manner. 

(c)  Much — degree  (quantity). 

(d)  Often— time. 
{e)  No — negation. 
(/)  Yes — affirmation. 

FIRST  DEFINITION. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb 
to  show  place,  manner,  degree,  time, 
negation,  or  affirmation. 

2.  With  Adjectives  and  Adverbs. 
Sentences. 

(a)  He  is  very  good. 

(b)  She  is  most  kind. 

(c)  How  divinely  good  ! 
id)  He  did  it  so  quickly. 

(e)  He  ran  remarkably  fast. 
FINAL  DEFINITION. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify 
a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another 
adverb. 

3.  Exercises. 

Several  exercises  should  be  written  here. 


Teaching. 


1.  (a)  Write  these  sentences  on  the  B.B. 
Let  class  analyse  them,  pointing  out  the 
subject  and  predicate  in  each  case. 

(6)  Ask  the  class  to  add  words  to  each  of 
the  sentences  in  (a).  "  Objects"  and  "  ad- 
verbs "  will  be  principally  given.  Select  the 
adverbs,  and  at  present  disregard  the  ob- 
jects. Something  like  the  additions  oppo- 
site will  be  given. 

(c)  Obtain  the  fundamental  meanings  of 
each  of  these  words  by  suitable  questions. 

(i)  Where  is  he  to  go?  There,  in  that 
place.     Hence  the  word  denotes  place. 

(2)  How  does  he  sing  ?  Well.  The  word 
denotes  the  way  or  manner  or  quality  of  his 
singing. 

(3)  When  does  he  ride  ?  Often.  So  get 
time,  or  when. 

(4)  Educe  negation,  affirmation,  and  de- 
gree by  similar  methods. 

Other  examples  should  be  given  by  the 
teacher;  then  by  the  class.  In  each  case 
the  class  should  be  asked  to  specify  the 
relation  expressed  by  the  word. 

The  class  should  then  give  this  defini- 
tion, write  it  on  their  slates,  and  learn  it. 

2.  Write  these  sentences  on  the  B.B., 
and  proceed  as  in  i. 

{a)  Let  class  underline  the  adverbs  in 
each  sentence. 

(6)  Class  next  to  point  out  the  words  to 
which  the  adverbs  are  added  or  which  they 
modify.     (Explain  this  phrase.) 

(c)  The  modified  words  should  then  be 
parsed;  but  not  fully.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  some  are  adjectives  and  some  are 
adverbs. 

Adjectives.     Good,  kind,  good. 
Adverbs.    Most,  how  divinely,  so  quickly, 
remarkably  fast. 

(d)  Class  to  give  the  final  definition,  then 
write  it  upon  their  slates  and  learn  it. 

3.  The  exercises  should  be  kept  within 
the  limits  of  the  present  definition.  The 
harder  and  more  obscure  cases  should  be 
left  for  a  subsequent  lesson. 


PRONOUNS. 

The  case  of  the  relative  pronoun  affords,  perhaps,  the  greatest 
difficulty  in  the  teaching  of  the  pronoun.  The  reasons  may  be 
various,    but   those  following  are    among   them.      The  mistakes 


284 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


arise   over  the  objective  case,  the   nominative  being  incorrectly 
used  in  its  place.     The  probable  causes  are — 

1.  The  prevalence  of  the  errors  surrounding  the  child.  Even 
well-educated  people  sometimes  go  astray  over  the  case  of  the 
relative,  and  errors  in  its  use  are  found  in  some  of  our  writers. 

2.  The  distance  of  the  relative  from  its  verb  will  account  for 
this  error.  The  relation  between  the  two  is  lost  owing  to  the  dis- 
tance ;  e.g.,  "  Who  are  you  calling  names  ?  " 

3.  The  tendency  of  the  language  to  cast  off  inflections  will 
probably  account  for  the  use  of  who  to  the  exclusion  of  whom  ; 
e.g.,  "  I  don't  know  who{m)  you  mean  ". 

How  to  Teach  the  Case  of  the  Relative  Pronoun. 

L  Write  on  the  B.B.  the  following  or  similar  sentences  : — 

1.  This  is  the  house  tkoJ  Jack  built. 

2.  I  know  a  man  wko  draws  well. 

3.  I  saw  the  dog  whose  head  you  patted. 

4.  I  defended  the  man  whom  he  slandered. 

Ask  the  boys  to  point  out  the  relative  pronoun  in  each  sentence,  and  under- 
line it  on  the  B.B.  It  is  assumed  that  the  class  can  recognise  a  relative 
pronoun.     The  difficulty  to  be  cleared  is  one  of  case  only. 

11.  Let  the  class  orally  analyse  the  sentences  on  the  B.B.,  the 

teacher  correcting  where  necessary. 


Sentence. 

Subject. 

Predicate. 

Object. 

Extension. 

1  f  This  is  the  house 

2  \  That  Jack  built. 

This 
Jack 

is  the  house 
built 

that 

1  (  I  know  a  man 

2  1  Who  draws  well. 

I 
who 

know 
draws 

a  man 

well 

1  f  I  saw  the  dog 

2  (  Whose  head  you  patted. 

I 
you 

saw 
patted 

the  dog 
whose  head 

1  (  I  defended  the  man 

2  )  Whom  he  slandered. 

I 
he 

defended 
slandered 

the  man 
whom 

III.  Now  proceed  by  a  few  carefully  graded  questions  to  elicit 
the  case  in  each  sentence;  thus  : — 

1.  Elicit  the  antecedent  in  each  sentence. 

2.  Use  the  analysis  to  determine  to  which  sentence  the  relative  belongs. 

3.  Next  elicit  the  function  of  each  relative.     In  each  case  call  attention  to  its 

position — subject  or  object — which  indicates  its  function.  The  subject 
is  in  the  nominative  case  ;  the  object  in  the  objective  case.  This  will 
explain  all  except  whose.  For  this  question  substitute,  and  the  case  is 
recognised,  e.g. ,  whose  head  ? — the  dog's  head.  What  is  the  case  of 
dog's  ? — whose  is  the  same  case, 


ENGLISH. 


285 


IV.  A  collection  of  common  errors  should  now  be  submitted  to 
the  class  for  correction  ;  e.g.  : — 

1.  Who  did  you  say  ? 

2.  I  don't  know  who  you  want. 

3.  Who  did  he  do  it  for  ? 

MOODS  OF  VERBS. 

In  giving  lessons  on  the  moods  of  verbs,  the  teacher  will  begin 
by  developing  the  idea  of  mood  through  the  medium  of  the 
sentence,  choosing  the  sentences  carefully  for  this  purpose.  The 
verb  in  each  sentence  should  be  underlined,  and  its  function 
named.  After  a  number  of  exercises  of  this  sort,  the  class  might 
be  asked  to  give  a  definition  of  mood. 

The  teacher  can  then  proceed  to  the  special  moods,  and  he 
should  begin  with  the  indicative  as  the  mood  of  commonest  use. 
The  method  is  the  same.  Through  the  medium  of  sentences  the 
function  of  the  indicative  will  be  deduced,  a  definition  will  be 
required,  and  a  number  of  examples  given. 

The  imperative  mood  is  taught  in  the  same  way  as  the  indica- 
tive. It  will  only  be  necessary  in  addition  to  emphasise  its  two 
chief  characteristics. 

1.  Its  subject  is  generally  absent. 

2.  h  has  in  reality  only  one  person— the  second. 

The  infinitive  mood  is  a  little  more  difficult  than  either  of  the 
previous  moods,  but  the  method  of  teaching  is  still  the  same.  Its 
functions  and  characteristics  will  be  deduced  from  well-chosen 
sentences  ;  the  unlimited  application  of  the  action  or  state  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb  will  be  enforced,  and  the  consequent  absence 
of  a  subject.  As  in  all  previous  cases,  the  definition  must  be  the 
work  of  the  class. 

The  subjunctive  mood  is  a  vanishing  one  in  English.  It  is 
probably  the  most  difficult  mood  for  children  to  grasp,  hence  its 
teaching  is  here  set  out  in  more  detail  than  the  other  moods. 

Iiesson  on  the  Subjunctive  Mood. 


Matter. 


I.  Idea  Developed. 

Sentences. 

1.  U you  drink  this  you  may  get 
better. 

2.  If  he  apologise  I  will  forgive 
him. 


Method. 


I.  Write  these  sentences  on  the  B.B. 
Point  out  the  verbs,  and  underline  them. 
Class  then  to  observe  that— 

1.  Expresses  a  doubt. 

2.  Expresses  possibility. 

3.  Expresses  a  wish. 

4.  Expresses  a  consequence. 

5.  Expresses  a  supposition. 


286 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 
LESSON  ON  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD— continued. 


Matter. 

Method. 

3.  I  would  I  were  a  bird,  that  I 
might  fly  to  thee  ! 

4.  If  only  one   man   be  saved,   I 
shall  not  have  worked  in  vain. 

5.  Be  careful,  lest  you  fall. 

II.  DEFINITION. 

The  subjunctive  mood  is  a  subjoined 
mood,  used  to  express   doubt,  wish, 
possibility,  consequence,  or  supposi- 
tion, all  as  moods  of  the  mind. 

III.  Characteristics. 

1.  It  is   the    mood   of  subjective 
assertion. 

2.  It    is    always    dependent     on 
some   other   clause   which  is  ante- 
cedent in  thought,  and  generally  in 
expression.     The  antecedent  clause 
is  called  the  conditional  clause  ;  the 
subjoined  clause  is  called  the  conse- 
quent clause. 

3.  It    is    gradually    dying  out   of 
use. 

lY.  FINAL  DEFINITION. 

II.  These  are  the  primary  functions  of 
the  subjunctive  mood,  and  from  these  the 
class  can  now  give  a  provisional  definition. 

Explain— Subjunctive,    from    subjungere 
—  to  join  on  to. 

III.  Explain  to  the  class  that  it  does  not 
express  a  fact  directly,  but  only  the  relation 
of  a  fact  to  the  mind  of  the  speaker.     Point 
out  that  it  is  used  in  a  sentence  which  is 
subjoined  to   a   principal    sentence.      The 
teacher  can  point  this  from  the  examples 
given. 

It  should  then  be  contrasted  with  the  in- 
dicative, which  deals  with  actual  facts  which 
exist  independent  of  our  minds.     Such  ex- 
istence we  call  objective,  whereas  the  sub- 
junctive deals  with  facts  which  exist  w  the 
mind  of  the   speaker,  whether  they  really 
exist   outside   or  not.     Such   existence   is 
called  subjective.     Then  put  the  contrast  on 
the  B.B. 

Indicative  =  Mood  of  Objective  Assertion. 
Subjunctive  '       ,,         Subjective 

Illustrate  further  from  the  sentences  sup- 
plied.    Give,  and  then  ask  for,  other  simi- 
lar sentences. 

The  teacher  should  next  put  some  sen- 
tences on  the  B.B.  as  examples  of  condition 
and  consequence. 

Condition. 

Consequence. 

The  subjunctive  mood  is  that  form 
of  the  verb  which  is  used  in  a  sentence 
that  is  subjoined  to  a  principal  sen- 
tence, and  which  does  not  express  a 
fact  directly,  but  only  the  relation  of 
a  fact  to  the  mind  of  the  speaker. 

1.  If  it  were  done 
when  'tis  done 

2.  If  he  be  the  man 

1.  Then  'twere  well 
it  were  done  quickly. 

2.  Then  he  shall  die. 

3.  Tell  the  class  this  fact,  and  illustrate 
with  a  few  carefully  chosen  sentences. 

The  class  should  then  be  able  to  giVe  the 
final  definition. 

A  good  selection  of  examples  should  then 
be  given  for  practice. 

TENSE. 

In  teaching  tense  the  teacher  will  seek  to  deduce  the  term 
from  a  number  of  suitable  sentences.  He  might  then  give  the 
derivation.  His  object  will  be  to  show  the  class  that  each  verb 
gives  some  notion  of  time;  then  to  compare  and  contrast  the 
forms  of  the  verbs  to  show  also  that  the  form  of  the  verb  is 
different  for  different  tenses.      According  to  the  general  principle 


ENGLISH. 


287 


laid  down  in  this  book,  the  definition  should  be  the  work  of  the 
class. 

The  teacher  should  then  deal  with  the  other  function  of  tense 
— the  indication  of  completeness  or  otherwise.  This  might  be 
deduced  from  suitable  sentences  again,  all  of  which  should  be  in 
one  tense,  say  the  present,  and  by  the  time  the  teacher  has 
worked  out  the  various  forms  of  the  present  tense,  he  will  have 
done  enough  for  one  lesson.  A  further  lesson  should  follow  deal- 
ing with  the  other  tenses  in  the  same  way  as  the  present.  A 
third  lesson  would  also  be  required  for  the  compound  tense  forms. 
A  lesson  is  now  given  in  illustration  of  the  method  to  be  em- 
ployed. 

A  First  Iiesson  on  Tense. 


Definitions  and  Examples. 

Teaching. 

I.  Deduce  Tense. 

1.  I  go  to  school. 

2.  Father  went  to  school. 

3.  Baby  will  go  to  school. 

1.  John  loves. 

2.  John  loved. 

3.  John  will  love. 

II.  Derivation'. 

From  the  French  temps,  which 
comes    from    the    Latin    tempus, 
meaning  time. 

PROVISIONAL  DEFINITION. 

Tense   is   that   form   of  the 
verb     which     indicates     time. 

There     are     three      tenses      or 

"  times  " — 

I.   Present.    2.  Past.    3.  F'uture. 

III.  The  Present  Tense. 

I.  Write  these   sentences   on   the   B.B., 
and  elicit  by  questioning  that— 

1.  I  go  to  school  now— at  the  present 
time. 

2.  Father  went  to  school  in  the  past. 

3.  Baby  will  go  to  school  at  some  future 
time. 

Each  verb  gives  some  notion  of  time. 

Then  write  on  the  B.B.  the  next  three 
sentences.  Let  the  class  examine  the 
verbs  in  each.  Each  verb  again  gives  us 
some  notion  of  time. 

Next  compare  and  contrast  the  forms  of 
the  verbs  by  writing  them  on  the  B.B. 
alone,  and  by  calling  attention  to  their 
terminations ;  e.g.— 

loves,       loved,       will  love, 
and  deduce  that  the  form  of  the  verb  is 
different  for  different  tenses. 

II.  Give  the  derivation.    The  class  should 
then  be  able  to  give  the  provisional  defini- 
tion opposite. 

III.  I.    Write  sentence   i   on   the   B.B. 
Class  to  note  that— 

(a)  The  action  is  present,  but 

(b)  The  idea  of  time  is  tiot  definite. 

It   may   mean,    I    am    working    at    this 
moment;   or   that   I   am   in   the   habit    of 
working,  although   I  may  not  be  at  work 
at  this  present  moment.     Hence  the  idea 
of  time  is   indefinite,  and   the   word   work 
marks  present  indefinite  time  or  tense. 

0     Writp   0   nn    R  R         Tt   shnvvs   that    thp 

Sentence. 

Tense. 

1.  I  work.. 

2.  I  am  working. 

3.  I  have  worked. 

4.  I  have  been  working. 

Indefinite. 

Imperfect. 

Perfect. 

Perfect  continuous. 

action  {a)  is  present, 

(b)  is  unfinished  or  imperfect. 

Hence  it  is  called  the  present  imperfect 
tense. 

3.  Write  3  on  the  B.B.     This  sentence 
shows  that  the  action  is  complete  or  perfect 

288 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 
FIRST  LESSON  ON  TR-NSE— continued. 


Definitions  and  Examples. 


FURTHER  DEFINITIONS. 

1.  The    Present    Indefinite    Tense 

indicates  that  the  action  is  pre- 
sent, but  its  precise  moment 
indefinite. 

2.  The  Present  Imperfect  Tense 
shows  that  the  action  is  not 
finished. 

3.  The  Present  Perfect  Tense  shows 
that  at  the  present  time  the 
action   is  finished. 

4.  The  Present  Perfect  Continuous 
Tense  shows  that  the  action  has 
been  going  on,  and  is  now 
finished. 


Teaching. 


at  the  present  time.    Have  worked  is  there- 
fore in  the  present  perfect  tense. 

This  tense  is  generally  difficult  to  chil- 
dren.    Point  out  to  them  that  though 
the  action  is  finished,  we  only  spake 
of  it  as  being  finished  at  present. 
4.  Treat  this  sentence  in  the  same  way. 
It  shows  that  the  action  has  been  going  on, 
and  is  now  finished.     This  tense  again  is 
difficult.     Try  to  make  the  class  understand 
that  the  action — 

(a)  has  been  going  on  up  to  the  present ; 

(b)  that  since  the  work  has  been,  i.e.,  is 
now  over,  it  is  complete ; 

(c)  that  I  have  been  working  for  some 
time,  i.e.,  that  the  action  was  continuous. 

The  class  will  then  see  why  it  is  known 
as  the  present  perfect  continuous  tense. 

Have  these  definitions  committed  to 
memory,  and  give  plenty  of  exercises  for 
practice. 


PREPOSITIONS. 

There  are  certain  well-marked  principles  which  characterise 
most  of  the  lessons  given  in  accidence,  and  which  perhaps  it  will 
be  wise  to  emphasise  once  more  by  collecting  and  enumerating. 
Every  lesson  in  this  chapter  is  shaped  and  guided  by  those  prin- 
ciples, and  they  should  be  firmly  fixed  in  the  memory.  They 
may  be  described  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  teacher's  first  task  is  to  develop  the  idea  of  the  subject 
of  the  lesson  through  the  medium  of  the  sentence. 

2.  Definitions  should  always  be  the  work  of  the  class. 
Furthermore,  they  should  be  synthetic  or  provisional,  being  given 
at  the  different  divisions  of  the  lesson,  and  growing  finally  into  the 
complete  statement. 

3.  Plenty  of  exercises  should  be  afforded  in  illustration  of  the 
truths  or  principles  the  teacher  is  seeking  to  establish. 

4.  The  functions  and  characteristics  of  each  particular  subject 
should  also  be  developed  through  the  medium  of  the  sentence. 

5.  After  the  various  rules,  truths,  and  principles  have  been  dis- 
covered by  the  class  from  matter  supplied  by  the  teacher,  they 
should  be  committed  to  memory — not  before. 

The  following  lesson  on  Prepositions  is  based  on  these  prin- 
ciples, and  it  would  be  a  good  exercise  for  the  young  teacher  if  an 
attempt  was  made  to  write  notes  of  lesson  on  Conjunctions  in  the 
same  way. 


ENGLISH. 
How  to  Teach  the  Preposition. 


289 


Definitions,  Exercises,  etc. 


I.  Develop  the  Idea. 

1.  The  book  is  on  the  desk. 

2.  The  boy  is  /«  the  school. 

3.  Love  in  a  cottage, 

4.  The  tree  was  struck  by  light- 
ning. 

FIRST  DEFINITION. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  which  ex- 
presses some  relation  between  two 
nouns. 

II.  Derivation. 

Pre — before  ;  positus — placed. 
The  preposition  is  placed  before 
the  noun. 
Exceptions. 

1.  Whom  was  this  done  by  ? 

2.  What  was  he  after  ? 

3.  What  did  you  do  that  for  ? 
SECOND  DEFINITION. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  placed  be- 
fore a  noun  (or  pronoun),  and  which 
expresses  some  relation  between  that 
noun  and  another. 

III.  Government. 

1.  The  mouse  is  in  the  cage. 

2.  The  cat  is  under  the  table. 

3.  He  killed  the  man  with  a  sword. 
Prepositions  govern   nouns  in  the 

objective  case. 
lY.  Classification. 

1.  Place. 

(a)  Rest  in — at,  by,  in,  out. 

(b)  Motion — to,  from,  into. 

2.  Time. 

{a)  Duration — pending,  during. 

(b)  Past — since,  from. 

(c)  Present — at,  in. 

(d)  Future — till,  unto. 

3.  Causality. 

(a)  Motive — from,  for. 

(b)  Agent  or  instrument — by,  with. 

FINAL  DEFINITION. 

Prepositions  are  words  placed  be- 
fore nouns  or  pronouns  to  show  some 
relation  of  place,  time,  or  causality. 


Teaching. 


I.  Show  a  book.  Class  to  name  it. 
Point  to  a  desk.  Class  to  name  this.  No 
connection  or  relation  between  them  ob- 
vious to  the  class  at  present.  Now  place 
the  book  on  the  desk.  Any  connection  or 
relation  between  them  now  ?  The  word 
on  expresses  this  relation. 

Strengthen  the  idea  by  shifting  the 
position  of  the  book. 

1.  Place  the  book  under  the  desk. 

2.  Place  the  book  far  from  the  desk. 

3.  Place  the  book  near  the  desk. 

In  each  case  the  class  is  to  point  out  the 
relation  between  the  book  and  the  desk. 

Then  they  might  point  out  the  word  in 
each  case  expressing  the  relations  between 
I  the  various  nouns  in  sentences  2,  3,  and  4. 

II.  Give  the  derivation  of  the  word. 

1      By  reference  to  the  examples,  show  that 
'  the  word  is  placed  before  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun. 
,      Ask  for  any  exceptions,  and  give  them  if 
!  necessary.      The   exceptions  are   not   bad 
grammar,  but  bad  composition.    Have  them 
given    in    an    improved    form;     e.g.,    By 
whom,  etc. 

III.  Write  these  sentences  on  the  B.B., 
and  let  the  class  pick  out  all  the  nouns.  In 
the  first  sentence  ask  for  the  case  of 
"  mouse  "  and  "  cage  ".  Cage  is  objective  by 
"  in ".  Similarly,  table  is  objective  by 
"  under"  ;  sword  is  objective  by  "  with  ". 

Then  Prepositions  govern  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

IV.  Write  on  the  B.B.  the  following 
sentences: — 

Place. 
[      I.  He  sits  in  the  chair;  i.e.,  he  rests  in 
\  the  chair. 

[      2.  This   hangs   out  of  the  window;  i.e., 
rests  out  of  the  window. 

3.  He  is  at  school  now ;  i.e.,  he  rests  or 
remains  at  school. 
Motion.    Write  on  the  B.B.— 

1.  He  goes  ^0  London.  Motion— <o  Lon- 
don. 

2.  He  comes /row  school.  Motion — from 
school. 

3.  They  walk  up  the  hill.  Motion — up 
the  hill,  etc. 

Time  and  Causality.— Deal  with  tiiese 
in  the  same  ways  as  with  place  and  motion. 

The  final  definition  should  now  be  given, 
written  on  their  slates,  and  committed  to 
memory. 

Exercises  should  follow  as  usual. 


PAUSING. 

Its  Difficulties,  and  How  to  Deal  with  Them. 

The  difficulties  here  referred  to  are  special  ones,  and  their 

19 


2go 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


occurrence  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  double  and  triple  functions  of 
some  words.  A  child  has  been  accustomed  to  meet  a  certain 
word  or  words  as  certain  parts  of  speech.  The  word  is  met  per- 
forming another  duty  ;  there  is  a  breach  of  expectation,  followed 
often  by  the  consequent  mental  demoralisation.  It  is  the  teacher's 
object  to  prevent  this,  and  so  these  difficulties  must  be  dealt  with 
as  they  appear.     Take  the  following  as  examples  :  — 

1.  He  cast  one  look  behind.     She  said,  "  Look  at  me  ". 

2.  How  do  you/orm  your  letter  ?     That  letter  has  a  curions/orm. 

3.  He  did  it  without  kelp.     Do  not  /telp  him. 

4.  (a)  The  co/d  is  severe  in  winter.      (d)  It  has  been  a  cold  season.      (f)  Do 

not  catch  cold. 

The  teacher  should  first  note  what  parts  of  speech  are  com- 
prised in  the  difficult  words — nouns,  verbs,  and  adjectives.  He 
should  then  ask  for  definitions  of  these  parts  of  speech,  and  apply 
these  definitions  as  follows  : — Ask  the  class  for  examples  ;  for 
sentences  containing  nouns,  verbs,  and  adjectives.  Then  let  the 
pupils  point  out  distinctly  the  functions  of  these  words  in  their 
own  supplied  sentences.  Then  analyse  the  sentences,  and  recapitu- 
late the  various  ways  in  which  subject,  predicate,  and  object  msiy 
be  expressed.  The  teacher  should  then  deal  with  the  given  diffi- 
culties on  the  B.B.  as  follows  : — 


Look  (as  a  Noun). 


Look  (as  a  Verb). 


1.  By  Analysis.     Look 
hence  it  is  substantival. 


the  object,       1.  By  Analysis.    Look  is  the  predicate, 
hence  it  is  a  verb. 

2.  By  Concord.  One  is  an  adjective.  2.  By  Function.  Look  is  imperative ; 
Adjectives  qualify  or  limit  what?  Then  it  commands  or  entreats,  and  therefore  is 
look  is  a  noun.  '  a  verb.     It  expresses  the  action. 

3.  By  Substitution.  He  cast  one  glance  3.  By  Substitution.  Regard  me. 
behind.  Glance  may  appeal  more  readily  Observe  me.  These  words  may  be  more 
than  look.  readily  recognised  as  verbs  than  look. 


Form"  and  "Help"  may  be  dealt  with  in  the  same  way  as 


Ijook. 


Cold  (as  a  Noun). 


1.  By  Analysis.  Cold  is  the  subject 
in  sentence  4  (a),  and  the  object  in  sentence 
4  (c).     It  is  therefore  substantival. 

2.  By  Substitution.  The  frost,  the 
weather,  etc.,  is  severe.  Some  of  these 
words  will  be  easily  recognised  as  nouns. 
Then  introduce  "  cold,"  and  show  that  its 
function  is  the  same. 


Cold  (as  an  Adjective). 


1.  By  Function.  Cold  tells  what  sort  of 
season  in  sentence  4  (b).  Adjectives  are 
words  which  show  "what  sort";  i.e.,  cold 
is  a  quality  of  "  season,"  and  is  therefore 
an  adjective. 

2.  By  Substitution.  It  has  been  a 
"  severe  "  season.  "  Severe  "  is  an  adjective 
qualifying  "season".  Cold  discharges  the 
same  functions  as  "severe,"  and  is  there- 
fore an  adjective. 


ENGLISH. 


291 


Difficulties  may  also  arise  from  the  form  of  composition  in 
which  the  selected  words  are  met.  The  language  may  be  in- 
volved— the  teacher  should  simplify  it.  It  may  be  obscure — the 
teacher  should  elucidate  it  by  a  paraphrase.  It  may  be  in  the 
form  of  poetry— the  teacher  should  transpose  it.  It  may  be 
elliptical,  as  in  some  of  Bacon's  essays — the  teacher  should  fill  in 
the  ellipsis. 

The  form  of  the  parsing  is  important,  and  will  depend  upon 
the  stage  attained  by  the  pupil.  Three  stages  are  recommended  as 
being  suited  to  the  knowledge  and  different  capacities  of  the  children. 

1.  Simple  Parsing. — Here  the  child  is  simply  required  to 
point  out  the  parts  of  speech,  and  this  should  be  done  in  two 
parallel  columns. 


Word. 


Part  of  Speech. 


He 
swims 
well. 


Pronoun. 

Verb. 
Adverb. 


2.  Intermediate  Form. — Here  some  knowledge  of  accidence 
and  syntax  might  be  required.  Only  elementary  knowledge 
should  be  expected,  and  difficult  constructions  should  be  left  till  a 
later  stage.  The  form  should  be  in  three  parallel  columns.  The 
part  of  speech  should  always  come  first  in  the  central  column,  and 
it  should  be  underlined.  Words  influenced  by  concord  or 
government  should  also  be  underlined. 


Word. 

Accidence. 

Syntax. 

He 
swims 
well. 

Pronoun,  personal,  3rd  person,  sing,  numb.,  masc. 
gen.,  nom.  case. 

Verb,  intransitive,  in  dicative,  present,  3rd  person, 
sing.  num. 

Adverb  of  manner. 

Agreeing  with  swims. 
Agreeing  with  he. 
Modifying  swims. 

3.  Advanced  Form. — Here  the  parsing  should  be  full,  and 
should  include  more  syntax  and  accidence.  The  origin  of  the 
word  should  be  given,  and  where  known  the  derivation  might  be 
added.  The  parts  of  verbs,  conjugation,  voice,  the  comparison  of 
adverbs,  and  the  more  detailed  functions  of  the  parts  of  speech 
would  be  expected,  whilst  the  parsing  of  an  interjection  should 
always  show  the  emotion  it  signifies.      The  form  should  assume 


292 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


the  arrangement  of  four  parallel  columns,  and  the  same  order  and 
underlining  should  be  adopted  as  in  the  intermediate  stage. 


Word. 

Accidence. 

Syntax. 

Origin, 

He 

swims 
well. 

Pronoun,  personal  (generally  so 
called,  but  really  a  demonstrative, 
as  personal  pronouns  are  only  of  the 
first  and  second  person),  3rd  person, 
masculine  gender,  nominative  case. 

Verb,  strong  (swim,  swam,  swum), 
intrans.,  indie,  present,  3rd  sing. 

Adverb  of  manner,  positive  de- 
gree, irregularly  compared. 

Agreeing  in    number 
and  person  with  swims. 

Agreeing  with  he  in 
number  and  person. 
Modifying  swims. 

Anglo-Saxon. 

ANALYSIS. 

In  the  teaching  of  analysis  the  word  should  be  carefully- 
graded,  the  form  of  the  analysis,  as  in  parsing,  depending  on  the 
capacity  and  class  of  the  pupils.  In  the  Code  this  branch  of 
grammar  is  not  required  until  the  Fourth  Standard  in  the  scheme 
usually  adopted  ;  but  all  teaching  in  grammar  should  commence 
with  analysis,  hence  the  stud}^  of  this  subject  should  commence  in 
Standard  I.  The  functions  of  words  are  best  learnt  from  sen- 
tences, and  not  from  the  trick  of  picking  out  nouns  and  other 
parts  of  speech. 

A  Graduated  Scheme  of  Analysis. 

1.  Standards  I.  and  II. — The  work  here  should  be  confined  to  subject 

predicate,  and  object. 

2.  Standard  III. — Subject,  predicate,  object,  and  extension  of  predicate 

(only  the  simpler  and  more  obvious  forms). 

3.  Standard  IV. — To  the  above  should  be  added  the  enlargement  of  the 

subject  and  object.  In  all  the  above  cases  the  work  should  be  con- 
fined to  the  simple  sentence. 

4.  Standard  V. — The  compound  sentence  might  be  introduced,  and  the 

kind  of  sentence  and  the  connecting  word  or  link  should  be  required. 

5.  Standards   VI.    and   VII. — The  complex   sentence  should  be  intro- 

duced ;  the  predicate  should  be  divided  into  simple  and  compound, 
the  latter  being  again  sub-divided  into  the  verb  of  incomplete  predica- 
tion and  the  complement  (subjective,  objective,  or  infinitive). 

NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE. 


Definitions  and  Examples. 


I.  Introduction. 

IL  The  Noun  Clause. 

1.  Kindness  is  commendable. 

2.  To  be  kind  is  commendable. 

3.  That    we    should    be    kind    is 


commendable. 


Teaching. 


L  Recapitulate  briefly  the  simple  sen- 
tence. 

II.  I.  Class  to  point  out  subject.  Teacher 
underlines  it.     It  is  a  noun. 

2.  Treat  this  sentence  in  the  same  way. 
The  subject  here  consists  of  three  words. 
It  is  called  a  phrase. 

The  teacher  should  then  point  out  the 


ENGLISH. 


293 


NOTES  OF  A  LESSON  ON  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE— continued. 


Definitions  and  Examples. 


DEFINITION. 

A  noun  clause  is   one   which   dis- 
charges the  function  of  a  noun. 
Examples. 

1.  Why  he  died  did  not  come  out. 

2.  How  he  got  on  was  never 
known. 

3.  What  I  intend  to  do  is  best 
known  to  myself. 

4.  Introduce  a  sentence  in  appo- 
sition with  it ;  e.g.  : — 

(a)  It  is  a  shame  that  he  should  be  treated 
so  badly. 

(b)  It  is  not  known  that  he  did  as  reported. 
III.  The  Adjective  Clause. 

1.  He  has  a  good  book. 

2.  He  has  a  book  of  much  merit. 

3.  He  has  a  book  which  is  highly 
esteemed. 

DEFINITION. 

An  adjective  clause  is  one  which 
talies  the  place  of  and  does  the  work 
of  an  adjective  in  a  given  sentence. 

Examples. 

These  can  be  given  by  the  teacher. 

1.  The  fly  that  sips  treacle  is  lost  in  the 
sweets. 

2.  Heaven  helps  those  that  help  themselves. 

lY.  The  Adverbial  Clause. 

1.  He  ran  quickly. 

2.  He  ran  in  a  quick  manner. 

3.  He  ran  as  quickly  as  a  birdjlies. 
Y.  These  Clauses  are  Subordinate, 

i.e.,    dependent    upon    other     sen- 
tences, viz. : — 

1.  That  sips  treacle. 

2.  Which  is  worth  a  great  deal. 

3.  That  we  should  be  kind. 

YI.  A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of 

principal  and  subordinate  sentences. 

Examples  of  Complex  Sentences. 


Teaching. 


Principal. 
I.  This  is  the  house 


2.  There  was  an  old 
woman 


3.  I  know 


Subordinate. 
That  Jack  built. 


Who  lived  in  a  shoe. 


Where  you  live. 


The  Link.  This  is  the  word  join- 
ing the  two  sentences  ;  as  that,  who, 
where.  Hence  a  complex  sentence 
at  least  is  composed  of  a  principal 
sentence  +  a  link  +  a  subordinate 
sentence. 


similarity  between  the  two  subjects  "  kind- 
ness "  and  "  to  be  kind  ". 

3.  Further  expansion  :  the  subject  is  now 
a.  sentence ;  i.e.,  a  sentence  is  used  instead 
of  the  noun  kindness.  Hence  it  is  called  a 
noun  sentence  or  noun  clause.  The  class 
should  now  be  asked  to  define  a  noun  clause. 

They  should  then  write  several  examples 
of  their  own  upon  their  slates.  These  might 
be  examined  in  sample  if  the  class  is  a  large 
one,  and  the  corrections  made  on  the  B.B. 

4.  Let  the  class  note  the  relation  between 
it  and  the  noun  clause — it  is  one  of  apposi- 
tion. It  can  be  called  the  subject,  and  the 
tioun  clause  can  be  said  to  be  in  apposition 
with  it. 

Other  examples  should  be  given  by  the 
class. 

III.  The  expansion  of  good  from  an  ad- 
jective to  a  phrase  and  from  a  phrase  to  a 
clause  or  sentence  should  be  pointed  out. 
Let  it  be  firmly  impressed  upon  the  class 
that  in  each  case  the  adjective,  the 
phrase,  and  the  sentence  discharge 
the  same  function. 

The  class  should  now  be  prepared  to  give 
a  definition  of  an  adjective  clause. 

In  dealing  with  further  examples,  in  each 
case  the  adjective  sentence  should  be  con- 
verted into  an  equivalent  word  or  phrase  ; 
e.g.  :— 

1.  The  treacle-sipping  fly  is  lost  in  the 
sweets. 

2.  Heaven  helps  self-helping  people. 
Exercises  should  follow  as  before. 

IV.  Treat  the  adverbial  clause  in  the 
same  way  as  the  noun  and  adjectival  clauses. 

V.  Detach  some  of  the  clauses  from  the 
sentences  to  which  they  are  joined. 
Analyse  them.  They  contain  subjects  and 
predicates ;  i.e.,  they  are  complete  sen- 
tences, and  yet  they  give  us  no  more  infor- 
mation than — 

1.  Treacle  sipping,  or 

2.  Good,  or 

3.  Kindness. 

They  are  simply  parts  that  help  to  com- 
plete or  modify  an  assertion  or  statement. 
They  depend  on  or  are  subordinate  to  the 
other  sentences.  Hence  they  are  called 
subordinate  sentences. 

VI.  Show  that  subordinate  is  a  relative 
word,  by  such  examples  as — 
Father  and  child. 
Shepherd  and  sheep. 
Husband  and  wife. 
Principal  and  subordinate,  etc. 
The  Link.      Have    the    sentences    read 
with  the  links  omitteS.     The  function   of 
the  link  in  each   case   is  obvious.      They 
"join"  or  introduce  the  subordinate  sen- 
tence. 

Sentences  should  now  be  supplied  with 
the  link  missing,  and  the  class  should  be 
invited  to  insert  the  right  link. 


294  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

-WORD  BULLDING. 

Its  Uses. 

1.  It  gives  the  pupils  a  knowledge  of  the  foots,  prefixes.^  and  suffixes  of 

their  own  language. 

2.  It  increases  their  vocabulary  both  actually  and  potentially. 

3.  As  a  consequence  of  2,  it  improves  the  accuracy  of  their  reading  and  the 

quality  of  their  composition. 

4.  It  has  an  intrinsic  value.     There  is  often  the  flash  of  recognition  and  the 

consciousness  of  power  when  a  pupil  recognises  the  elements  of  a  new 
word  and  grasps  its  meaning. 

5.  It  is  a  good  exercise  in  synthesis,  and  synthesis  is  the  chief  method  of 

education  for  young  scholars. 

6.  It  introduces  the  class  to  derivation,  and  the  history  surrounding  many 

words.     In  this  way  it  thrcnvs  a  side  light  on  historv. 

7.  It  affords  a  good  exercise  in  verbal  analysis. 

How  to  Teach  "Word  Building^. 

Deal  first  with  the  native  elements,   commencing  with  the 

prefixes,  and    afterwards    taking    the  suffixes.      The    root  will    be 

taught  with  both  the  prefixes  and  suffixes. 

Prefixes. — i.  Write  words  like  the  following  on  the  B.B.,  and 

let  the  class  divide  them  into  syllables  :  — 

Afternoon  equals  after-noon.  Gainsay  equals  gain-say. 

Forbid  ,,       for-bid.  Inborn         ,,       in-born. 

Foretell  ,,       fore-tell.  Misdeed       ,,      mis-deed. 

Offshoot         ,,       off-shoot.  Midday        ,,       mid-day. 

2.  The  class  should    next   be  asked  to  say  which  is   the  more 

important  part  of  the  word  in  each  case.     This  they  will  tell  from — 

{a)  Its  meaning. 
[b)  Its  function. 
{c)  Its  capability  for  independent  work  and  position. 

These  will  be  given  as  -noon,  -bid,  -tell,  -shoot,  -say,  -born,  etc.  Tell  the 
class  these  are  the  roots.  Compare  with  the  roots  and  branches  of  a  tree.  The 
class  should  then  define  or  describe  a  root,  and  give  examples. 

3.  It  should  next  be  noted  that  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
words  are — 

{a)  Placed  in  front  of  the  roots  in  each  case;  i.e.,  they  are  preplaced. 
\b)  That  they  are  joined  to  or  fixed  on  to  the  roots. 
Hence  they  are  called  prefixes. 

4.  Plenty  of  examples  should  now  be  supplied,  which  should 
be  dealt  with  both  synthetically  and  analytically. 

(ci)  Synthetically.       Roots  can  be  supplied  by  teacher  or  class,  and  suitable 

prefixes  can  be  added. 
{b)  Analytically.      Words  can  be  supplied  for  analysis  ;  e.g.,  misdeed  ;  mis- 

(prefix),  deed  {xooi). 

5.  The  meanings  of  the  words  should  now  be  educed,  and 
little  verbal  or  written  exercises  in  composition  embodying  these 
words  should  be  given. 


ENGLISH.  295 

Suffixes.— The  number  of  suffixes  is  so  great  that  to  avoid 
confusion  they  must  be  classified  carefully. 

1.  Write  on  the  B.B.  the  following  words :  baker,  liar, 
sawyer,  sailor. 

2.  Ask  class  to  divide  them  into  syllables  ;  e.g.,  bak{e)-er,  li-ar^ 
sawy-er.,  sail-or. 

3.  The  roots  should  then  be  pointed  out  as  in  the  previous 
lesson. 

4.  Then  they  are  to  remark  concerning  the  remainders  of  the 

words — 

{a)  They  are  all  placed  after  the  root. 

{b)  They  are  all  fixed  to  the  root. 

That  is,  they  are  syllables yf.r^r/  affer  the  roots. 

5.  Now,  give  the  word  suffix,  and  explain  its  derivation  and 
meaning  ;  suf  (sub),  3.ndfixeve  (to  fix). 

6.  The  class  should  now  define  or  describe  a  suffix,  and  give 
examples. 

7.  Now  teach  the  functions  of  these  suffixes  ;  e.g.  : — 

Bak(ef)-er  ;  bake— the  action  of  baking.  \ 

-er — the  person  who  does  the  baking.     ) 
Li-ar  ;  lie— the  action  of  lying.  \ 

-ar  —the  doer  of  the  action,     f 
Hence  the  suffixes  -er,  -ar,  -or,  denote  the  doer  of  an  action. 

8.  Deal  with  the  remaining  suffixes  in  a  similar  way,  and  in 
your  teaching  follow  some  such  classification  as  the  following, 
dealing  with  each  division  or  sub-division  seriatim. 

[a)  Noun  suffixes. 

1.  Doer  of  an  action. 

2.  Denoting  an  instrument. 

3.  Denoting  abstract  nouns. 

4.  Diminutives. 
{b)  .Adjective  suffi.xes. 

[c)  Verbal  suffixes. 

[d]  Adverbial  suffixes. 

9.  Only  the  more  obvious  and  easily  recognised  suffixes  should 

be  taken  first.      The  more  obscure  cases  should  form  later  lessons. 

Their  too  early  mtroduction  tends  to  confuse,  discourage,  and  to 

unduly  magnify  the  difficulties  of  the  study  ;    e.g.^  the  following 

should  be  reserved  : — 

{a)  Suffixes,  such  as  d  in  deed  ;  m  in  barin  ;  ship,  skip,  scape  ;  th  and  /. 
{b)  Prefixes,  such  as  a  in  asleep  ;  y  in  yclept. 

10.  Words  involving  some  of  the  contractions,  etc.,  met  with 
in  derivation  should  not  be  taken  until  after  the  Latin  and  Greek 
prefixes  and  suffixes  have  been  dealt  with. 


296  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

Ijatin  Elements. 

11.  When  the  ordinary  native  suffixes  and  prefixes  are  known, 
the  Latin  should  be  taken  and  treated  much  the  same  as  the 
English.     There  will  be  one  or  two  more  steps  at  least. 

{a)  The  English  and  Latin  prefixes  could  be  compared  or  contrasted  where 
there  is  a  similarity  of  form. 

/  English — meaning  (into) — inborn. 
(  Latin —  , ,        (into) — include. 

, ,         (not) — inactive. 
(3)  Or  where  there  is  a  similarity  of  function. 

English^^^;;-^  (before)  as  \\\  foretell.     Latin — prae  (before)  as  in  prevent, 
mis  (wrongly)  as  in  misdeed.  mis  (badly)  as  in  mischief, 

{c)  Hybrids. — These  could  be  dealt  with  here,  but  it  would  be  better  to 
postpone  them  until  after  the  Greek  element  had  been  introduced. 
Write  following  words  on  the  B.  B.  At  least  one  of  them  will  show  the 
wisdom  of  postponement : — 

Wondrous,  dislike,  goddess,  anti-religious,  bondage. 
Give  the  derivations — 

Wondrous — English,  wonder  ;  Latin,  -oiis  (osus),  full  of. 
Dislike— English,  like  ;  Latin,  -dis. 

In  old  English  it  was  mislike. 
Goddess — English,  _^c;^  ;  Latin,  ?jf  (Norman  French,  ice). 
Bondage — Icelandic,  bondi  (a  tiller  of  the  soil)  ;  Latin,  aficum  (French, 

a^^e). 
Anti-religious — Greek,  anti  ;   Latin,  religio. 
Ask  the  class  to  give,  where  possible,  the  proper  suffix  for  converting  the 
word  into  a  pure  English  or  Latin  word.      This  will  be  an  interesting 
exercise  for  the  children. 

12.  The  Gvetk  should  next  be  taken,  and  taught  on  the  same 

lines.      There  will  now  be  greater  opportunities  for  comparison 

and  contrast ;  e.g.  : — 

Contrast  Greek  a  in  anarchy  with  English  a  in  asleep. 

,,  ,,     syn  in  synthesis  with  Latin  cum  in  circumference. 

,.  ,,     exo  in  exotic  with  Latin  ex  in  expel. 

,,  ,,     efido  m  endogenous  W\\.hl^2i\.m  intro  m  introduce. 

13.  Finally,  the  more  obscure  and  difficult  cases  could  be  taken,  e.g. : 

{a)  Aphaeresis—ihe  taking  of  a  letter  from  the  beginning  of  a  word. 

Latin  exemplum  gives  English  sample. 

.,     avunculus  ,,  uncle. 

[b)  Syncope — the  cutting  out  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  middle  of  a  word. 

Latin  crudelis  gives  English  cruel. 

[c)  Apocope — the  cutting  off  of  the  last  letter  or  syllable  of  a  word. 

Latin  porcus  gives  English  pork. 
,,     pillula  ,,  pill. 

Word  Branching. — Some  very  interesting  and  instructive 
lessons  might  be  given  on  word  branching.  A  stern  could  be 
given,  its  meaning  made  known,  and  then  words  asked  for 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  given  stem.  The  suggested 
words  must  retain  something  of  the  form  and  meaning  of  the 
stem.     The  teacher  should  supplement  the  lists  given. 


OLD  ENGLISH  STEM. 


ENGLISH. 

LATIN  STEM. 


297 

GREEK  STEM. 


Byrn-an  (to  burn). 

Curro  (I  run). 

Astron  (a  star). 

Brown  (the  burnt  colour). 

Current  (running). 

Aster  (a  flower). 

Burnish  (to  polish). 

Currency  (money  in  circulation). 

Asterisk     (a     little 

Brand  new  (burnt  new). 

Concur,  incur,  occur,  recur. 

star). 

Brand  (a  piece  of  burning  wood). 

Course  (the  track  on  which  any- 

Asteroid (starlike). 

Brandish  (brand,  a  sword). 

thing  runs). 

Astrology,    astron- 

Brandy (burnt  wine). 

Courser  (a  runner). 

omy. 

Brimstone  (burning  stone). 

Recourse,      concourse,       inter- 

Astrologer. 

Brindled  (striped  with  brown). 

course. 

Astrological. 

Brunt  (shock  of  onset,  where  the 

Precursor  (a  forerunner). 

Astronomer. 

battle  burns). 

Courier  (one  who  runs). 

Astronomical. 

Corridor      (Spanish,      passage. 

Disaster  (ill  fortune). 

gallery). 

The  above  lists,  which  are  copied  from  Blackie's  English 
Language  and  Literature,  afford  typical  examples  of  the  kind  of 
exercise  to  be  given  or  obtained.  No  branch  of  word  building  is 
more  interesting  or  more  popular  than  these  thought  and  memory- 
raking  exercises. 

Inductive  Iiessons. — The  class  should  now  be  ready  for  a 
series  of  capital  inductive  lessons  on  the  subject,  which  might  take 
some  such  form  as  follows  : — 

I.  The  class  can  be  asked  to  form  one  part  of  speech  from 
another  by  the  addition  of  prefix  or  suffix ;  e.g. : — 


Noun. 

Adjective. 

Adverb. 

Verb. 

Abstract  Noun. 

Participle. 

Fool. 

Smear. 
Post. 

Foolish. 
Knowing. 
Smeared. 
Posting  (house). 
Postage  (stamp). 
Beautiful. 

Foolishly. 
Knowingly. 

Post-haste. 

Beautifully. 

Befool. 
Know. 
Smear. 
Post. 

Beautify. 

Foolishness. 
Knowledge. 

Postage. 

Beauty. 

Fooling. 
Knowing. 
Smearing. 
Posting. 

Beautifying. 

2.  The  modifying  force  of  the  prefixes  and  suffixes    will 

furnish  another  good  exercise.     A  stem  should  be  taken,  and  the 

complete  word  should  be  built  up  upon  it ;  e.g.,  tzpke  the  words 

self,  god,  stand,  point,  etc. 

un-self-ish-ness.  un-god-li-ness. 

not-vvith-stand-ing.  ne-ver-the-less. 

dis-ap-point-ing-ly.  trans-sub-stan-ti-a-tion. 

3.  Lessons  on  synonyms,  biling^iism,  and  doublets  might  be 
given  through  the  medium  of  word  building. 

RUIiES  OF  CONCORD. 

The  rules  of  syntax,  like  the  definitions  of  grammar,  should  be 
'learned  inductively  and  applied  inductively  ;  i.e.,  they  should  be  truths 


298 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


and  statements  discovered  by  the  pupils  themselves  from  the 
examination  of  sentences.  Too  often  the  rule  or  definition  is 
given  by  the  teacher,  and  then  explained  and  illustrated.  We 
observe  facts,  and  then  make  generalisations  on  them,  simple 
probably  in  the  first  case,  but  proceeding  gradually  to  more  diffi- 
cult cases.  That  is  the  inductive  part.  When  the  rule  or  defini- 
tion is  known,  plenty  of  examples  should  be  given  for  applying 
the  rules.  That  is  the  deductive  part.  As  an  illustrative  lesson 
we  might  take  the  rules  of  concord  of  the  verb  with  its  subject 
in  sentences  connected  by  disjunctive  conjunctions. 


Rules  and  Examples. 


I.  Introduction. 

Simple  concords.  The  verb  agrees 
with  its  subject  in  number  and 
person. 

II.  Adversative  Conjunctions. 

1.  I  tried,  but  he  did  not. 

2.  He  is  severe,  yet  he  is  just. 

3.  I  failed,  nevertheless  I  was 
hopeful. 

4.  He  will  do  it,  notwithstanding 
the  risk  attached  to  it. 

III.  Distributive  Conjunctions. 

1.  Singular. 

[a]  Either  he  is  good  or  he  is  bad. 

(6)  Neither  did  John  succeed,  nor 
did  he  fail. 

{c)  Whether  he  is  good  or  bad,  I 
like  him. 

[d)  It  must  be  done,  otherwise 
the  thing  will  fail. 

{e)  He  must  be  selfish,  else  he 
would  give. 

(/)  He  will  have  to  do  it,  or  I 
shall  want  to  know  why. 

2.  Plural  and  Singular. 

[a)  Either  he  or  they  were  wrong. 

(6)  Neither  he  nor  they  were 
right. 

{c)  Neither  the  king  nor  his  men 
were  there. 

3.  Different  Persons. 

{a)  Either  he  or  I  am  right. 
(6)  Neither  you  nor  he  is  right. 


Teaching. 


I.  Recapitulate  these.  It  is  assumed 
they  are  known,  and  the  present  lesson  is 
chosen  as  offering  more  difficulties. 

II.  Deal  with  this  class  first,  as  it  offers 
least  difficulty.     Explain  adversative. 

The  class  will  perceive  that  the  concords 
are  the  same  as  in  the  simple  sentences, 
because  a  compound  sentence  is  composed, 
in  each  of  these  instances,  of  two  simple 
sentences.  Each  simple  sentence  is  taken 
separately,  and  its  concords  specified. 
These  adversative  conjunctions  will  thus  be 
seen  to  have  no  influence  on  the  concords. 

III.  Explain  "rfis^riiMftfc". 

1.  (a)  Call  attention  to  each  sentence 
from  a  to  f  seriatim.  It  will  be  remarked 
that  the  subjects  and  predicates  are  singular 
in  each  case. 

(b)  Give  other  sentences  and  invite  the 
class  to  examine  them. 

(c)  Then  invite  the  class  to  give>'o«  some 
sentences. 

(d)  Explain,  illustrate,  amplify,  and 
correct  where  necessary.  Discuss  each 
correction   with    the    class. 

The  rule  ought  to  be  now  supplied  by 
the   pupils. 

2.  Call  attention  to  these  sentences. 

(a)  There  is  a  change  of  number  (he  -and 
they). 

(b)  The  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest— the 
plural  they. 

Then  invite  the  class  to  expand  the 
sentence;  e.g. — 

Either  he  (was  wrong)  or  they  were  wrong. 

Neither  he  {was  right)  nor  they  were  right.. 

Neither  the  king  {was  there)  nor  his  men 
were  there. 

The  second  rule  should  now  be  given. 

3.  (i)  Teach  these  in  the  same  way  as  in 
No.  2. 

(2)  The  complete  rule  for  distributive 
conjunctions  could  then  be  given. 

(3)  Exercises  should  be  given  to  test  the 
rules  as  stated.  Some  of  these  should  be 
correctly  and  some  incorrectly  given.     The 


ENGLISH.  299 


Rules  and  Examples. 


Teaching. 


Rules.  necessary  corrections  should  be  made  by 

,,,,  ,  ,  .  .  ,. '  the   class. 

I.    When    the  subject  consists   ot  I      The  three  rules  should  then  be  written 
two  or  more  singular  nouns  joined  :  on  the    slates— either    from    dictation    or 

by   a   distributive    conjunction    the  ^'■o'?,^e"?°'"yT^'?d,}f^':"l'l.  ^y  the  class. 
■'    -  ■'  If  the  class  is  m  the  habit  of  using  note 

books,   the   rules   should   then   be   entered 


verb  must  be  singular 

2.  When  the  subject  consists  of 
two  nouns  of  different  numbers  the 
verb  agrees  with  the  nearer. 

3.  When  the  subject  consists  of 
two  or  more  nouns  of  different 
persons,  the  verb  agrees  with  the 
nearest  subject. 


there. 

The    distributive     conjunction      should 
then  be  tabulated  on  the  B.B.,  and  copied 
by  the  pupils  into  their  note  books ;  e.g. — 
Either  Or 

Neither  Nor 

Whether        Or 
Otherwise      Else,  Or. 
Rapidly  recapitulate  the  whole  lesson. 


PUNCTUATION. 

Proper  punctuation  is  a  difficulty  by  no  means  confined  to 
young  pupils.  Many  ordinarily  educated  adults  are  quite  unable 
to  grapple  with  it.  Their  letters  are  evidence  of  it.  The  reasons 
are  not  far  to  seek.  The  subject  is  inherently  difficult,  demand- 
ing a  good  and  ready  analytic  power,  and  the  subject  is  rarely  or 
ever  taught. 

I.  Its  Object. — Its  object  is  to  make  the  writer's  meaning 
clear  ;  to  take  the  place  of  accent,  emphasis,  cadence,  in  the 
spoken  tongue.  Children  soon  understand  this.  Let  the  teacher 
speak — within  his  lung  capacity — a  long  sentence,  or  series  of 
sentences,  without  a  stop.  Repeat  the  sentence,  making  proper 
pauses.      Its  object  will  then  be  obvious. 

H.  "What  it  is. — Certain  signs,  called  points,  notes,  or  marks, 
are  used  in  sentences  to  mark  off  their  different  parts,  and  to  show 
the  relation  of  each  part  to  the  whole.  The  placing  of  these 
points  in  their  right  place  is  called  punctuation. 

m.  Method  of  Teaching. — Introduce  the  signs  gradually, 
and  in  the  following  order,  which  indicates  the  measure  of  their 

difficulty  : — 

1.  Full  stop  or  period. 

2.  Mark  of  interrogation. 

3.  Mark  of  exclamation. 

4.  The  semicolon. 

5.  The  comma. 

6.  The  colon. 

7.  Other  marks. 

IV.  The  Full  Stop  or  Period  (.). 

I.   Repeat  a  number  of  small,  disconnected  phrases,  such  as  birds  fly,  dog 
bark.,  cats  steal,  pausing  after  each.     Call  attention  to  the  cadence  of 


300  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

the  voice  at  the  end  of  each  phrase.  Tell  them  that  fall  of  the  voice  is 
translated  or  represented  by  a  full  stop.  Make  the  sign  (.)  upon  the 
B.B. ,  and  call  attention  to  it. 

2.  Write  some  short  phrases  on  the  B.  B.  without  stops — the  previous  phrases 

will  do.     Let  class  read  them  as  written,  thus  :— 
dogs  barks  cats  steal  birds  Jly. 
The  initial  capitals  will  be  omitted,  and  small  letters  used.     Now  insert  the 
stops,  and  let  the  class  read  them  again,  thus  : — 
dogs  bark,     birds  Jly.     cats  steal. 
Then  change  the  initial  letters  of  each  sentence  for  capitals.     Let  the  class 

tell  you  why ;  if  unable  to  do  so,  tell  them. 
Call  attention  to  the  difference  in  their  voices.     The  effect  is  best  produced 
by  placing  them  in  parallel  lines,  and  having  them  read  consecutively. 

3.  Now  dictate  a  number  of  small  sentences,  gradually  increasing  the  num- 

ber of  words,  but  in  no  case  requiring  any  stop  but  a  period. 

4.  Then  let  the  class  supply  exercises,  which  could  be  written  on  the  B.  B. , 

and  corrected  where  necessary. 

V.  Other  Stops. — The  teaching  of  the  note  of  interrogation 
and  the  mark  of  exclamation  presents  no  difficulty.  The  colon  is 
little  used.  All  other  marks  can  be  explained  as  met,  except»the 
semicolon  and  the  comma.     These  want  special  teaching. 

VI.  The  Semicolon  (;). 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  looseness  associated  with  the  use  of 
this  mark  even  by  educated  people.  Often  it  is  entirely  omitted, 
so  that  we  may  have  an  essay,  a  letter,  or  a  piece  of  composition 
without  the  appearance  of  a  single  semicolon.  When  it  does 
appear,  it  is  often  merely  as  a  change  for  the  too  frequent  commas 
or  periods,  and  hence  its  use  is  often  wrong.  It  is  not  easy  to 
make  young  children  understand  its  correct  use,  because  it  in- 
volves, as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  a  certain  amount  of 
analytic  power,  and  a  readiness  in  detecting  the  opportunities  for 
the  exercise  of  this  power. 

1.  Let  the  pupils  transcribe  good  composition,  and  read  well-written  books, 

and  use  will  gradually  smooth  the  way. 
This  process  of  imitation  is  a  good  aid,  but  as  a  sole  process  it  is  too  slow 
in  its  results. 

2.  Make  the  class  thoroughly  understand  what  a  sentence  is.     Then  explain 

co-ordinate  sentences.  Explain  them  to  mean  sentences  of  the  same 
kind  or  sort. 

3.  Write  on  the  B.  B.  some  unpunctuated  co-ordinate  sentences.     Have  them 

read.  Then  punctuate  them  and  have  them  read  again.  Then  have 
them  read  consecutively.  As  before,  introduce  the  capitals  in  their 
right  places,  and  contrast  the  difference  in  voice  and  effect. 

4.  Now  write  a  number  of  unpunctuated  co-ordinate  sentences  upon  the 

B.B.  aeain,  and  let  the  class  punctuate.  Call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  sentences  are  usually  long  ones. 

5.  Give  plenty  of  exercises. 

VII.  The  Comma  (,). 

This  should  be  reserved  for  a  late  lesson,  because  of  its  many 
uses  and  difficulties.     It  is  the  weakest  of  all  our  stops  in  prac- 


ENGLISH. 


301 


tice,  but  its  proper  use,  generally  a  matter  of  slow  growth,  may 
be  considerably  accelerated  by  a  few  preliminary  explanatory 
lessons. 


Uses  and  Examples. 


I.  Preparatory  Work. 

1.  Reading. 

2.  Transcription. 

3.  Speaking. 

(a)  With  monotone. 

[b]  With  cadence. 
Examples. 

(a)  He  is  a  rich  strong  tall 
man. 

(/))  He  is  a  rich,  strong,  tall 
man, 

II.  First  Use. 

To  separate  short  co-ordinate  sen- 
tences. 

Examples. 

1.  He  did  not  come,  but  he 
will  come. 

2.  The  man  is  good,  and  he  is 
strong. 

III.  Second  Use. 

To  separate  nouns  in  an  enumera- 
tion. 

Examples. 

1.  Men,  women,  children,  old 
and  young,  all  were  there. 

2.  Smith,  Brown,  Jones,  and 
Robinson  have  all  gained  prizes. 

3.  Infantry,  cavalry,  trans- 
port engineers  and  artillery  all 
looked  tired  and  dirty. 

lY.  Tliird  Use. 

To  separate  a  series  of  adjectives 
and  adverbs  qualifying  tiie  same 
words. 

Examples. 

I.  He   was    shrewd    cautious 


Teaching. 


I.  I  and  2.  These  recur  daily  in  school 
work. 

3.  Direct  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to 
the  pauses  in  your  own  speech. 

(a)  The  sentences  selected  can  be  re- 
peated in  a  monotone  and  without  punctua- 
tion. 

(6)  In  punctuated  cadence. 

The  class  should  be  called  upon  to  note 
the  difference,  and  the  way  it  is  translated. 

(i)  Orally — by  the  voice. 

(2)  Written — by  punctuation. 

Other  similar  sentences  might  be  similarly 
treated. 

II.  This  use  is  discovered  by  the  use  of 
suitable  examples.  Let  these  examples  be 
written  on  the  B.B. 

(a)  The  class  should  first  analyse  the 
sentences,  paying  particular  attention  to 
the  kind  of  sentence — co-ordinate. 

(b)  Next  let  them  notice  that  the  sen- 
tences are  short.  Contrast  with  the  semi- 
colon. 


Semicolon. 


-  Separates,  as  a 
rule,  long  co-ordin- 
ate sentences. 


Comma. 


Separates,  as  a 
rule,  short  co-ordin- 
ate sentences. 


(c)  The  first  use  should  now  be  given  by 
the  class,  and  plenty  of  exercises  should  be 
worked  upon  it. 

III.  This  use  should  be  taught  as  in  I. 

I.  (a)  Dictate  this  sentence  without 
punctuation. 

(6)  Write  it  on  the  B.B.  and  punctuate 
it.     Then  let  pupils  read  it. 

Some  will  pause  at  each  noun,  some  not. 

Call  attention  to  this  fact. 

(c)  The  teacher  should  then  read  it  with 
cadence  and  pauses. 

(d)  The  class  should  translate  these 
pauses  on  their  slates. 

(e)  The  teacher  should  then  do  the  same 
thing  on  the  B.B.,  and  ask  the  class  to 
compare  and  correct.  They  are  translated 
by  commas. 

2  and  3.  These  sentences  should  be 
similarly  treated,  and  the  class  should  then 
be  able  to  give  the  second  use. 

IV.  Taught  as  before. 

I.  (a)  Dictate  sentence  i  unpunctuated. 
(6)  Then  write  the  sentence  on  the  B.B... 
(c)  Class  to  note  that  the  words  are — 

(i)  Adjectives  in  i  and  2. 

(2)  Adverbs  in  3. 


302 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Uses  and  Examples. 


•cunning      and      unselfish      {un- 
punctuated). 

2.  He  was  shrewd,  cautious, 
cunning,  and  unselfish  {punc- 
tuated). 

3.  He  did  it  quickly,  smartly, 
quietly,  and  cleanly. 

Y.  Fourth  Use. 

It  indicates  the  omission  of  a  word 
or  words. 
Examples. 

1.  Unpunctiiated.  Histories 
make  men  wise  poets  witty  the 
mathematics  subtle  natural 
philosophy  deep  moral  grave 
logic  and  rhetoric  able  to  con- 
tend. 

2.  Punctuated.  Histories  make 
men  wise  ;  poets,  witty ;  the 
mathematics,  subtle  ;  natural 
philosophy,  deep  ;  moral,  grave  ; 
logic  and  rhetoric,  able  to  con- 
tend. 


Teaching. 


YI.  Exercises. 

1  hese  should  be 


{d)  Let  the  class  read  the  sentences  as  in 
I. 

(e)  The  teacher  should  then  read  with 
pauses,  and  proceed  as  in  the  last  step. 

The  class  should  now  be  able  to  give 
the  third  use  ;  and  they  might  be  asked  to 
supply  other  sentences  to  test  the  extent 
and  accuracy  of  their  knowledge. 

V.  Proceed  as  before. 

I.  (a)  Dictate  this  sentence  !m/)tmctea;e(/, 
and  then  recapitulate  the  uses  of  the  semi- 
colon. 

(b)  Ask  the  class  to  point  out  the  co- 
ordinate sentences.  This  will  be  best  done 
by  expanding  the  sentences  into  their  full 
form  ;  e.^. — 

The  poets  make  men  witty ; 

The  mathematics  make  men  subtle  ; 

Natural  philosophy  makes  men  deep. 

(c)  Now  insert  the  semicolons. 

(d)  The  teacher  will  then  pattern  read 
the  piece,  making  the  proper  pauses,  and 
asking  the  class  to  translate  them  into 
"  stops  "  on  their  slates. 

(e)  Now  point  out  that  since  they  had  to 
expand  the  sentences,  there  are  parts 
omitted ;  i.e.,  the  sentences  are  elliptical. 

The  class  should  now  be  able  to  give  the 
fourth  use. 

Recapitulation  will  be  very  necessary  in 
this  lesson.  Plenty  of  mixed  exercises 
should  be  given  so  that  the  class  may 
recognise  the  use  in  each  case. 


mixed  ". 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH  IiITERATURE. 


I.  Its  Difficulties. — It  is,  like  history,  a  mixture  of  the  easy 
and  the  difficult  ;  the  intelligent  and  the  abstruse  ;  the  interesting 
and  the  dull.  It  demands  a  pure  taste,  and  careful,  thoughtful 
reading  and  reflection.  This  combination  is  not  an  easy  one  to 
produce  in  pupils  during  the  short  period  of  their  school  life. 

H.  The  Teacher's  Aim. — The  primary  aim  should  be  to  give 
the  scholars  a  love  for  good  reading ;  an  active  love,  that  will  mani- 
fest itself  when  school  days  are  over.  To  do  this  successfully,  the 
teacher  will  require  to  have  read  much,  so  as  to  bring  the  beauties 
of  our  national  literature  within  his  grasp  and  appreciation. 


ENGLISH.  303 

III.  How  to  Secure  this  Aim. 

1.  The  Selection  of  the  Authors. 

{a)  Generally  /ate  authors  should  be  preferred  to  old  ones.     The  thoughts 

and  language  are  better  within  the  grasp  of  the  pupil,  and  his  interest 

will  be  greater. 
{b)  Poetry  should  not  be  introduced  too  early.    Prose  is  the  spoken  language, 

and  the  best  prose  is  the  best  beginning. 
[c]  Later  on   the   pupil  should  be  introduced   to  the  poets,  among  whom 

Shakespeare  should  be  the  chief  source  of  study. 

2.  Selected  Portions  of  Authors. — The  most  interesting  portions  of  these 
authors  should  be  selected,  and  well  studied. 

[a)  They  should  know  something  of  the  author  s  life.     This  brings  interest 

and  light. 

[b)  A    little  contemporaneous  history  should   be  introduced   to  throw  side 

lights  on  his  life.  The  class  will  then  the  better  understand  the  social, 
religious,  and  political  influences  under  which  he  wrote. 

[c)  The  beauties  and  peculiarities  of  his  style  should  be  pointed  out.     It 

should  be  contrasted  with  the  language  of  the  present  day,  and  ex- 
plained. The  whole,  if  possible,  should  be  written  in  prose  order,  piece 
by  piece.  The  more  difficult  words  and  phrases  should  be  unfolded. 
Some  of  the  derivations  should  be  learned,  and  the  geographical  and 
historical  allusions  placed  intelligently  before  the  class.  And  to  do 
this  well  a  portion  of  the  author  should  be  committed  to  memory. 

THE  TEACHING  OF  COMPOSITION. 

Grammar  and  composition  go  well  together,  for  they  are 
necessarily  complementary.  If  grammar  is  the  science  of  lan- 
guage, then  composition  is  the  art. 

I.  Its  Requirements. — Composition  is  not  easy  for  children, 
but  it  is  very  educative.  Its  demands  are  great,  and  are  never 
fully  met  by  many,  either  during  their  school  life  or  afterwards. 

1.  It  Includes  both  oral  and  written  language. 

2.  It  involves  a  good  knowledge  of  grammar,   and  a   written   and   oral 

atmosphere  of  correct  language.     The  latter  is  sometimes  enough. 

3.  It  demands  a  large  vocabulary.     Much  reading  gives  this. 

4.  The  laws  oi  punctuation,  of  the  sentence,  and  of  ihe.  pa?-agraph  must  be 

known. 

5.  Good  composition  shows  style.     This  will  include — 

[a)  A  knowledge  of  idioms. 

[b)  The  proper  use  oi  figures  of  speech. 

ic)  Certain  mental  qualities,  like  clearness,  strength,  etc. 
\d)  Emotional  qualities,  like  pathos,  humour,  etc. 

n.  Its  Teaching. — The  composition  itself  may  be  oral  or 
written. 

A.  Oral  Composition. 

1.  Subject  Matter.— The  teacher  supplies  it  or  gets  it  from  the  children,  and 
this  kind  of  composition  may  begin  in  the  earliest  classes.  It  affords  plenty  of 
scope  for  reference  to,  and  for  the  teaching  of,  the  rules  of  grammar.  The 
common  objects  surrounding  the  children  will  be  useful  for  the  first  lessons. 

2.  Teaching. — The  teacher  takes  a  common  object  (a  book)  and  the  class  is 
invited  to  describe  it  orally.  Its  qualities  are  enumerated,  and  then  collected 
up  into  one  answer,  and  given  by  scholars  selected  by  the  teacher. 


304  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

B.  "Written  Composition. 

1.  Subject  Matter. — In  every  case  the  matter  should  be  supplied  by  the 
teacher,  whilst  early  efforts  should  be  mere  exercises  in  the  forms  of  language. 
The  matter  may  be  supplied  in  any  of  the  following  forms,  but  the  sequence 
here  suggested  should  be  observed,  as  the  order  is  believed  to  be  progressive. 

{a)  Objective  descriptions. 

(d)  Sentence  making. 
(t)  Transcription. 
{(/)  Dictation. 

(e)  Memory  composition. 

( /)  Reading  a  short  story. 

(^)  Transposition. 

(/i)  Paraphrasing. 

(?)  'Original  composition. 

2.  Teaching. 

{a)  Objective  Descriptions.  Utilise  the  work  done  in  oral  composition. 
In  fact,  the  writing  down  of  the  collected  oral  answers  is  a  necessary 
complement  to  that  work. 

(d)  Sentence  Making.     A  word  can  be  given  to  the  class,  and  they  can  be 

asked  to  write  down  sentences  embracing  the  word  ;  or  a  subject  or 
predicate  can  be  given,  and  the  rest  of  the  sentence  left  to  their  own 
efforts.  Then  these  sentences  might  be  expanded,  and  so  synthetically 
a  complex  or  compound  sentence  may  be  built  up.  This  is  a  very 
effective  method  of  teaching  both  grammar  and  composition. 
{c),  [d]  Transcription  and  Dictation.  Both  of  these  are  aids,  especially  if 
any  of  the  beauties  or  strong  points  of  the  passage  are  pointed  out. 
But  at  all  times  the  copying  of  good  models  is  advisable,  for  imitation 
and  memory  are  both  strong  in  children. 

(e)  Memory    Composition.     Choice   passages  are  learnt   and  written  from 

memory.  It  is  a  better  method  than  {c)  or  (d),  but  is  too  exhausting  and 
too  expensive  in  time  for  wide  practice.  Nevertheless,  it  stores  a  little 
valuable  leaven  which  operates  according  to  the  mental  stuff  it  has  to 
mix  with. 

{/)  Reading  a  Short  Story.  The  story  is  slowly  and  distinctly  read  once 
or  more  times,  the  number  of  times  depending  on  the  class.  This 
method  trains  the  attention,  the  memory,  and  the  power  to  write  ;  for 
the  supplying  of  this  class  of  matter  arouses  interest,  and  cultivates  the 
power  of  continuous  composition. 

{£■)  Transposing.  Here  a  piece  of  poetry  is  stripped  of  its  poetic  garb. 
Hence  the  passages  chosen  should  be  carefully  graduated.  Transpos- 
ing' on  a  definite  plan  is  a  fa?'  better  exercise  than  pure  transposition, 
but  the  teacher  must  be  satisfied  at  first  if  he  gets  the  class  to  transpose 
at  all.  Later  on  plenty  of  variety  can  be  introduced  by  the  choice  of 
suitable  passages,  from  which  the  class  might  do  all  or  any  of  the 
following  exercises : — 
(i)  Pure  transposition. 

(2)  The  expansion  of  all  elliptical  sentences. 

(3)  Conversely,  the  removal  of  all  tautologies  or  redundances. 

{4)  Figures  of  speech  might  be  explained  by  others  more  simple,  or  by  simple 

English. 
(5)  Classical   words  might   be   exchanged   for  English  words  or  phrases,  and 
conversely. 
{hi)  Paraphrasing.     The  teacher  should  first  give  the  class  a  good  definition 
of  paraphrasing,  and  illustrate  it  well,  so  that  the  work  to  be  done  may 
be  clear  to  them.     The  work  should  be  graded,  so  that  the  pupils  should 
begin  by  paraphrasing — 
(i)  Single  words.     Synonyms  or  explanations  could  be  given. 

(2)  Short  phrases.     A  good  equivalent  should  be  expected. 

(3)  Sentences.    These  should  not  be  too  long  at  first. 


ENGLISH.  305 

(4)  Transposed  pieces.    Some  of  the  transposed  pieces  might  now  be  paraphrased, 
and  the  two  compared. 

(5)  New  pieces.     Unseens  might  now  be  given.     In  their  first  efforts  at   this 

stage  the  piece  might  be  briefly  explained  by  the  teacher.     Subsequently 
the  scholars  should  be  left  to  their  own  resources. 

To  get  good  paraphrasing  the  teacher  should  introduce  a  scheme 
similar  to  that  introduced  in  the  teaching  of  transposition,  and 
should  follow  the  sequence  of  teaching  given  above.  But  the 
chief  aid  will  be  the  cultivation  of  the  general  intelligence  of  the 
class.  It  is  a  valuable  study,  and  possesses  certain  advantages 
which  far  outweigh  its  defects. 

1.  Advantages. 

(i)  It  demands  careful  reading. 

{2)  It  develops  the  power  of  expression  by  training  the  pupil  to  the  best 
uses  of  the  language. 

(3)  It  improves  the  tastes  and  broadens  the  views. 

(4)  It  is  as  good  a  test  of  intelligence  as  can  be  given. 

2.  Defects. 

(i)  The  pupil  is  said  to  spoil  the  passage. 

(2)  It  is  difficult  and  discouraging. 

These  are  alleged  as  objections  to  it.     The  first  is  rubbish — the  passages  still 
exist  unspoilt.     Teaching  will  cure  the  second  in  most  cases. 

(3)  It  breeds  verbosity.     The  author  is  probably  too  terse  for  the  pupil.     A 

flood  of  words  is  the  result. 

(4)  Irrelevant  matter  is  introduced,  and  essential  matter  is  omitted.     This 

is  a  defect,  but  also  an  opportunity  for  the  teacher. 

C.  Origninal  Composition. — As  this  makes  severe  mental 
demands  upon  the  pupils,  it  should  not  be  given  before  the  Upper 
Standards  are  reached. 

1.  Subject  Matter. — Here  the  pupil  finds  his  own,  and  as  a  result,  those  who 
read  most  and  observe  most  should  be  most  successful.  But  the  subject 
matter  must  be  within  the  range  of  child  life  and  child  reading,  and  it  should 
be  drawn  from  one  of  two  sources. 

(a)  Observation.  Early  lessons  might  be  descriptions  of  the  common 
objects  around  them  ;  of  the  animal  kingdom ;  of  common  events  in 
their  lives. 

(d)  Reading.  Later  lessons  should  make  a  demand  upon  their  reading  and 
knowledge  of  books. 

2.  Teaching. — The  teacher  should  assist  at  first.  He  should 
run  through  the  subject  matter,  pick  out  its  chief  heads,  put  them 
upon  the  B.B.,  and  then  tell  the  class  to  write  a  paragraph  upon 
each.  He  should  also  encourage  letter  writing,  seeing  that  they 
are  begun  and  finished  correctly  both  as  to  style  and  taste. 

m.  The  Correction  of  Composition. 

1.  Chief  Points. 

{a)  The  address  or  heading,  and  conclusion  (if  a  letter). 
(d)  Spelling  errors. 

(c)  Errors  of  style.      Avoid  exaggerations,  conceits,  and  verbosity.    This 
will  involve  a  careful  choice  of  language, 
20 


3o6  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

{d)  The  logical  arrangement  of  the  subject  matter.     The  chief  heads  or 
divisions  must  follow  in  proper  sequence,  and  each  should  be  relegated 
to  a  separate  paragraph.     The  sentences  should  be  kept  short. 
(e)  The  punctuation  should  be  correct,  and  too  many  commas  should  be 

avoided. 
(/)  The  handwriting  should  be  legible  and  neat. 
(^)  The  subject  matter  should  be  suitable. 

Style  and  language  will  be  very  largely  the  reflex  of  the  pupil's  own  personality. 
The  style  should  be  simple,  free  from  vulgarisms  and  figurative  language. 
The  phrases  should  be  expressive,  but  not  florid ;  whilst  any  appearance  of 
"  gush  "  should  be  promptly  checked. 

2.  How  to  Correct. 

{a)  Spelling  Errors  should  be  underlined,  or  lined  through,  written  correctly, 
learned,  and  repeated  to  the  teacher. 

{b)  Grammatical  Errors  should  be  explained  on  the  B.B.  As  a  further 
aid  the  correct  form  of  speech  should  be  written  by  each  child,  and 
then  repeated  to  the  teacher.  This  brings  more  associative  links  into 
play,  and  supplies  the  necessary  repetition  for  retention. 

{c)  Errors  of  Style  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  grammatical 
errors. 

{d)  Choice  of  Language.  The  language  should  be  improved  and  refined 
where  necessary.  The  objectionable  and  the  desirable  form  of  speech 
should  be  placed  in  parallel  columns  on  the  B.  B. ,  and  copied  into  the 
note  books  for  future  guidance  and  reference.  This  will  apply  equally 
to  exaggerations,  conceits,  vulgarisms,  slang,  etc. 

[e)  Punctuation.     See  section  on  "  Punctuation". 

3.  When  to  Correct. 

{a)  Whilst  the  class  is  working  arithmetic  examples, 

(b)  Or  working  a  test  paper, 

\c)  Or  doing  memoritory  work, 

{d)  Or  doing  transcription  or  another  piece  of  composition— but  not  during 
a  reading  lesson,  as  is  often  the  case.  In  all  these  cases  a  junior  could 
superintend  the  class,  and  so  set  the  teacher  at  liberty. 

(e)  Two  or  more  classes  could  be  massed,  so  as  to  set  one  or  more  teachers 
at  liberty. 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Notes  of  a  lesson  to  a  Sixth  Standard  on  Latin  prefixes. 

2. — Notes  of  lesson  on  a  complex  sentence  ;  moods  of  verbs  ;  prepositions  ;  the  verb  ; 
first  lesson  on  the  adverb  ;  simple  analysis  ;  adverbial  phrases  ;  the  adjective  and  its  uses. 

3. — What  are  the  chief  points  to  be  attended  to  in  correcting  the  composition  of  a 
letter  of  an  older  class  ? 

4. — Point  out  some  of  the  common  mistakes  of  children  as  regards  the  use  of  rela- 
tive pronouns,  conjunctions,  and  punctuation. 

5. — What  general  rules  of  composition  would  you  give  to  a  class  which  was  required 
to  write  out  from  memory  the  substance  of  a  short  story  ? 

6.  The  same  word  may  be  either  a  noun,  verb,  or  adjective  in  different  sentences. 
Show  from  the  following  sentences  how  you  would  obviate  this  difficulty  for  children 
acquainted  with  those  parts  of  speech  only : — 

He  cast  one  look  behind.  She  said,  "  Look  at  me  ".  How  do  you  form  your 
letters  ?  That  letter  has  a  curious  form.  He  did  it  without  help.  Do  not 
help  him.  The  cold  is  severe  in  winter.  It  has  been  a  cold  season.  Do  not 
catch  cold. 

7. — Make  a  table  showing  all  the  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence,  and  give  a 
short  sketch  of  your  method  of  teaching  the  term  "  predicate  ". 

8. — Give  briefly,  with  examples,  the  rules  of  concord  of  the  verb  with  its  subject, 
when  they  are  connected  by  disjunctive  conjunctions  in  the  order  in  which  they  would 
naturally  arise. 

9. — Show  that  grammar  and  composition  may  be  taught  simultaneously  from  the 
first.  Give  examples  of  such  simple  sentences  as  may  be  formed  by  Third  Standard 
children  to  illustrate  the  position  of  the  verb  and  adjective  in  a  simple  sentence. 


ENGLISH.  307 

10. — What  order  should  be  followed  in  teaching  the  parts  of  speech  ?  Give  your 
reasons. 

II.— Discuss  the  influence  which  the  careful  preparation  of  the  repetition  must  have 
upon  the  upper  classes  of  a  school. 

12. — Name  four  or  five  poems  or  poetical  extracts  which  you  think  suitable  to  be 
learned  by  heart  by  scholars  of  the  Third  and  of  the  Sixth  Standards  respectively,  and 
give  your  reasons  for  choosing  them. 

13.— Give  some  examples  of  what  is  called  "word  building"  as  an  exercise  in 
English,  and  say  what  is  the  use  of  it. 

14.— After  a  class  has  reproduced  in  writing  a  short  story  which  you  have  previously 
read  to  them,  what  is  your  method  of  revising  the  exercises  ? 

15. — Describe  the  best  exercises  you  know  in  English  composition,  and  the  best 
way  of  correcting  them. 


3o8 


CHAPTER  XV. 

ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE. 

From  the  "Code"  and  the  Revised  Instructions  issued  to  Her 
Majesty's  Inspectors,  we  are  able  to  get  a  few  hints  as  to  the 
teaching  of  this  subject.  We  learn  that  conversational  object 
lessons  are  to  be  given  in  the  lower  Standards,  and  that  more 
systematic  instruction,  with  the  aid  of  text  books,  is  to  be  given 
in  the  higher  Standards.  In  all  cases  the  work  is  to  be  done 
mainly  by  experiment,  observation,  and  illustration,  and  not  by 
definition  and  verbal  description.  The  scheme  selected  by  the 
teacher  must  be  well  graduated,  and  suitable  to  the  ages  of  the 
children.  It  should  make  the  scholars  acquainted  not  only  with 
words,  but  with  the  facts  and  materials  of  the  outer  world.  It 
should  also  be  well  illustrated  by  models,  diagrams,  and  experi- 
ments. Furthermore,  any  scheme,  to  meet  with  the  approval  of 
H.M.I.,  will  have  to  show  regard  for  the  teacher's  experience  and 
qualifications,  and  the  possible  visits  of  a  skilled  demonstrator,, 
who  may  be  a  visiting  teacher  to  several  schools. 

Advantages  of  Studying'  Elementary  Science. 

1.  Health. — The  child  gets  some  practical  knowledge  embodying  a  feu- 
essential  principles  for  the  maintenance  of  health  ;  e.g: ,  physiology  and  domestic 
economy. 

2.  Trade. — It  gives  some  knowledge  of  the  objects  of  trade  and  manufac- 
ture ;  of  articles  of  import  and  export. 

3.  Utility. — Many  common  objects  are  explained,  brought  within  the 
comprehension  of  the  child,  and  their  uses  are  demonstrated  in  a  practical 
manner. 

4.  Parents. — The  children  will  develop  into  better  parents  for  such  know- 
ledge. The  follies  and  carelessness  of  some  parents  would  disappear  under  the 
light  of  a  little  scientific  training  and  knowledge.  Parents  are  often  ignorant  of 
the  laws  of  life.  Their  children  are  made  to  run  all  sorts  of  risks,  so  that  they 
may  look  pretty.     Their  food  is  often  monotonous,  and  badly  cooked. 

5.  Citizens' — The  exact  training  and  discipline  of  such  lessons  will  form 
habits  of  close  observation,  of  thought,  of  appHcation,  which  will  operate  on 
the  boy,  mould  his  habits  perhaps,  and  influence  the  citizen  man. 

6.  Pleasure. — It  widens  out  their  knowledge  and  their  sympathies,  and  so. 
increases  their  total  pleasure  in  life 


ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE.  309 

7.  Interest. — The  lessons  are  very  interesting,  and  consequently  they  place 
the  minds  of  the  children  in  their  best  receptive  conditions. 

8.  Rest. — Such  lessons  are  a  good  change  from  book-work,  and  they  afford 
a  pleasant  rest  ;  a  rest  that  is  not  wasteful,  which  is  the  best  form  of  rest. 

9.  Mind. — It  gives  a  perfect  embodiment  of  truth,,  and  it  teaches  the  right 
way  to  arrive  at  truth.  The  mind  training  is  great  if  the  subject  is  properly 
taught.  Observation,  reasoning,  and  memory  are  all  strengthened  and  de- 
veloped, whilst  the  constructive  elements  of  some  of  the  lessons  appeal  to  the 
inventive  powers. 

Herbert  Spencer  writes  :  "  What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth  ? 
The  uniform  reply  is — Science.  This  is  the  verdict  on  all  the 
counts.  For  direct  self-preservation,  or  the  maintenance  of  life 
and  health,  the  all-important  knowledge  is — Science.  For  that 
indirect  self-preservation  which  we  call  gaining  a  livelihood,  the 
knowledge  of  greatest  value  is — Science.  For  the  due  discharge 
of  parental  functions  the  proper  guidance  is  to  be  found  only  in — 
Science.  For  that  interpretation  of  national  life,  past  and  present, 
without  which  the  citizen  cannot  rightly  regulate  his  conduct,  the 
indispensable  key  is — Science.  Alike  for  the  most  perfect  pro- 
duction and  highest  enjoyment  of  art  in  all  its  forms,  the  needful 
preparation  is  still — Science.  And  for  purposes  of  discipline — 
intellectual,  moral,  religious — the  most  efficient  study  is,  once 
more  —Science." 

Practical  Teaching. — It  is  a  recognised  principle  that  ex- 
perimental sciences  should  be  taught  practically,  i.e.,  the  pupils 
should  not  only  see  the  objects,  but  handle  them  ;  they  should  not 
only  see  experiments,  but,  where  possible,  perform  them.  Some 
subjects,  like  zoology  and  chemistry,  cannot  be  properly  studied 
without  personal  practical  work.  But  whether  it  is  expedient  for 
pupils  to  work  practically  in  all  subjects  of  science  is  an  open 
question,  according  to  Bain,  who  gives  the  following  arguments 
for  and  against.  The  establishment  of  technical  schools  and 
organised  science  schools,  with  their  chemical  and  physical 
laboratories,  has  placed  the  matter  almost  beyond  argument.  All 
teachers  are  decided,  probably,  that  when  facilities  exist,  there 
practical  work  should  always  be  given. 


For- 


The  impressions  made  on  the  mind  by  the  actual  objects,  as  seen  and 
handled  and  operated  upon,  are  far  beyond  the  efficiency  of  words  or 
description. 

Although  diagrams  have  a  special  value  in  bringing  out  links  of  con- 
nection that  are  disguised  in  the  actual  objects,  they  can  never  show 
the  things  as  they  appear  to  our  senses  ;  and  this  full  and  precise  con- 
ception of  actuality  is  the  most  desirable  form  of  knowledge. 


3IO  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

3.  It  enables  the  student  to  exercise  a  free  and  independent  judgment  upon 

the  dicta  of  the  teacher. 

4.  It   is   a   good   introduction   to  various  scientific  avocations — engineers, 

electricians,  analysts,  etc. 

Against— 

I.   It  depends  on  what  further  use  is  likely  to  be  made  of  it. 
2.'  A  good  knowledge  may  be  obtained  from  a  course  that  shows  all  needful 
experiments,  without  the  actual  participation  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

3.  Fine  manipulations  and  delicate  precautions  are  sometimes  necessary. 

These  are  not  likely  to  be  observed  or  possessed  by  the  pupils. 

4.  Mere  manual  manipulation  cannot  be  called  a  part  of  scientific  informa- 

tion or  discipline,  while  to  acquire  it  needs  time  and  attention. 

5.  If  training  in  the  higher  intellectual  operations  of  the  mind  is  the  first 

object  in  view,  it  involves  too  great  an  expenditure  of  time. 

Methods  of  Teaching  in  Elementary  Science. 

I.  Observation. — When  we  watch  anything  with  attention  we 
are  said  to  observe  it.  The  process  implies  more  than  a  mere 
look,  although  it  often  involves  little  or  no  conscious  effort.  But 
unless  we  more  than  merely  see  the  things,  we  cannot  strictly  be 
said  to  observe.  We  must  also  see  what  parts  the  thing  is 
composed  of.  It  is  the  careful  notice  which  the  teacher  seeks  to 
cultivate  by  his  teaching.  All  ojjservation  must  be  precise,  and  it 
must  exclude  everything  not  to  the  point.  If  possible,  the  object 
should  be  viewed  under  as  many  conditions  as  possible :  the 
phenomena  observed  should  be  isolated  from  everything  else 
whilst  the  observation  is  being  made.  In  science,  observation 
usually  precedes  experiment.  In  fact,  in  some  sciences,  like  as- 
tronomy, many  physiological  phenomena,  and  in  meteorology,  the 
only  means  open  to  us  of  ascertaining  the  effect  of  a  given  cause 
is  by  observation.  Again,  if  you  want  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  a 
given  effect,  you  can  only  do  it  by  observation.  "  We  can  take  a 
cause  and  try  what  it  will  give ;  but  we  cannot  take  an  effect  and 
try  {i.e.,  experiment)  what  it  will  produce  "  (Mill). 

H.  Experiment. — Observation  and  experiment  are  the  two 
great  methods  for  education  in  science,  but  very  often  they  overlap 
to  such  a  degree  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where  the  one  ends  and 
the  other  begins.  Every  experiment  implies  something  more 
than  an  observation.  The  knowledge  derived  from  experiment 
is  more  precise  than  that  of  observation  ;  in  fact,  as  much  may 
be  learnt  from  a  few  experiments  as  from  years  of  observation 
very  often.  Hence  the  teacher  should  make  the  fullest  possible 
use  of  experiment  in  his  teaching ;  it  will  be  his  greatest  guarantee 
that  his  pupils  are  learning  truths,  and  not  words  merely.     The 


ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE.  311 

sequence  of  teaching  is  always  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  ; 
and  apart  from  the  interest  the  teaching  may  excite,  it  should 
show  to  the  class  the  nature  of  the  many  common  things  around 
them,  and  furnish  the  reasons  for  the  existence  of  such  things. 
But  the  teacher  must  not  be  too  ambitious  in  his  experiments. 
He  must  remember  the  tender  age  of  his  class,  and  so  make  his 
experiments  as  sirnple  as  possible.  If  you  want  to  find  the  effects  of 
a  given  cause  you  must  use  experiment.  In  this  it  is  the  converse 
of  observation. 

m.  Illustration. — The  work  of  illustration  is  to  light  up,  or 
make  clear,  a  point  or  statement  in  a  lesson,  and,  properly  used, 
it  is  very  valuable.  Many  a  difficulty  can  be  lightened,  explained^ 
and  fixed  by  suitable  illustration.  "  A  good  illustration  is  worth 
two  arguments — it  conveys  what  is  intended  and  carries  convic- 
tion." It  follows  the  sequence  of  teaching  by  explaining  the  un- 
known by  the  known.  They  require  to  be  freely  used  ;  for  at 
every  point  of  a  lesson  where  new  matter  presents  itself,  illustra- 
tions, varied  in  form  and  nature,  may  be  required.  They  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes — oral,  pictorial,  and  material. 

1.  Oral. — These  take  two  well-marked  forms — example  and 
analogy — and  they  may  consist  of  similes,  metaphors,  personifica- 
tion, proverbs,  or  anecdotes.  In  using  them  the  teacher  will 
sometimes  avail  himself  of — 

{a)  The  Instructive  Method,  in  which  the  definition  is  given  and  followed 

by  the  direct  statement ;  or 
{/>)  The  Educative  Method,  which  is  based  upon  a  collection  of  examples 

used  as  verbal  illustrations. 

"  Children  are  required  to  take  the  examples  and  illustrations 
supplied,  and,  by  way  of  comparison  and  contrast,  to  discover 
truth  for  themselves  ;  and,  through  the  effort,  to  get  a  thorough 
training  in  the  processes  of  thought,  which  in  after  life  will  be 
vastly  more  valuable  than  whole  stores  of  fragmentary  facts  and 
statements." 

A.  Example.— Here  the  general  is  illustrated  by  the  particular.  We  are 
to  love  one  another  (general)  because  God  first  loved  us  (particular).  Example 
is  really  a  form  of  resemblance.  This  will  be  best  seen  by  an  example  or  illus- 
tration. 

{a)  "  The  earth  possesses  spherical  shape,  rotation  on  axis,  and  an  atmo- 
sphere. 

{d)  Venus  resembles  the  earth  in  possessing  the  former  set  of  properties. 

{c)  Therefore  Venus  is  inhabited." 
There  is  a  simple  or  mere  resemblance  of  the  former  set  of  properties  {i.e.,  each 
has  an  atmosphere,  etc.),  and  we  infer  the  latter  (inhabited). 


312  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

B.  Analogy. — By  analogy  we  mean  an  agreement  or  likeness  between 
things  in  some  circumstances  or  effects  when  the  things  ;ire  otherwise  entirely 
ditterent ;  e.£^. ,  when  we  say  that  learning  enlightens  the  mind,  we  recognise  an 
analogy  between  learning  and  light,  the  former  being  to  the  mind  what  light  is 
to  the  eye,  enabling  it  to  discover  things  before  hidden.  Analogy  is  sometimes 
confounded  with  similarity,  but  improperly.  Similarity  denotes  general  rese7n- 
blance ;  analogy  implies  genei-al  difference,  with  identity  or  sameness  in  one  or 
more  relations  or  functions.  Thus  there  is  analogy,  but  no  similarity,  between 
the  lungs  of  animals  and  the  gills  of  fishes.  Ingeutnetry,  equality,  proportion, 
or  similarity  of  ratio  (2  :  6  :  :  3  :  9)  is  an  analogy.  In  grammar,  conformity  to 
the  spirit,  structure,  or  general  rules  of  a  language,  similarity  in  respect  to  any 
of  the  characteristics  of  a  hinguage.  as  derivation,  inflection,  pronunciation,  etc., 
are  analogies.  //  is  the  illustration  of  the  particular  by  the  particular.  "  Two 
things  resemble  each  other  in  one  or  more  respects  ;  a  certain  proposition  is 
true  of  one  of  them  ;  therefore  it  is  true  of  the  other." 

2.  Pictorial. — The  love  of  pictures  is  almost  universal,  hence 
a  pictorial  illustration  appeals  to  a  child  at  once.  But  they  must 
never  be  introduced  till  the  need  of  them  is  felt,  because  from  the 
interest  they  excite  they  are  likely  to  become  ends  and  not  means. 
Remember  they  are  only  means  to  an  end,  and  they  must  not  be 
so  used  as  to  smother  the  point  they  are  meant  to  illustrate.  A 
verbal  description  should  accompany  their  use.  This  adds  to  their 
value.  But  the  best  pictorial  illustrations  are  hand  drawn  by  the 
teacher.  The  children  see  the  drawing  grow  under  the  teacher's 
hand,  who  sketches  it  any  size  he  likes  within  the  limit  of  the  B.B. 
The  children  are  more  ready  to  imitale  a  sketch  than  a  printed 
picture,  because  they  have  seen  it  to  be  possible  in  the  teacher, 
and  because,  all  unnecessary  parts  being  omitted,  the  task  is 
easier.  Any  part  of  the  drawing  can  he  taken  out,  enlarged,  and 
specially  dealt  with  ;  whilst  the  use  of  coloured  chalks  lends  clear- 
ness and  brightness  to  the  whole  thing. 

3.  Material. — This  class  includes  such  material  objects  as 
apparatus,  models,  specimens,  etc.  Information  conveyed  ver- 
bally needs  much  repetition,  or  it  is  soon  forgotten;  but  only 
present  the  object,  and  its  mental  image  remains  and  carries  the 
teaching  with  it.  The  children  see  and  handle  the  objects ;  faith 
is  lost  in  sight,  and  the  spirit  of  verification  thus  formed  will  be 
very  valuable. 

Tests  of  their  Value.— These  will  be  gathered  from  what  has 
already  been  said. 

1.  True. — They  must  be  true  and  real.  When  oral,  the  illustrating  state- 
ment must  be  true,  or  it  should  be  stated  to  be  otherwise. 

2.  Subordinate. — They  must  not  override  the  truth  or  fact  itself. 

3.  Appropriate. — Whether  you  use  example  or  analogy,  a  picture  or  an 
object,  see  that  the  cases  are  properly  related  to  each  other. 


ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE.  313 

4.  Familiar. — So  far  as  possible,  they  should  deal  with  the  facts  and 
incidents  of  child  life  ;  otherwise,  it  will  be  a  case  of  the  blind  leading  the 
blind. 

3.  Distinct. — They  must  be  clear  and  graphic.  The  essential  points  must 
be  placed  distinctly  before  the  class  by  the  illustration. 

6.  Tims. — They  should  not  be  used  till  needed. 

7.  Variety. — They  should  be  varied.  But  the  ability  to  give  varied  illustra- 
tions on  the  many  subjects  in  a  school  curriculum  demands  a  well-read  and 
a  well-stored  mind. 

IV.  Classification. — Elementary  science  demands  a  knowledge 
of  the  simple  principles  of  classification  ;  and  classification  has 
been  defined  as  the  arrangement  of  things,  or  our  notion  of  them 
according  to  their  resemblances  or  identities. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  constant  occupations  of  the  mind. 
Things  are  good  or  bad,  old  or  new,  nice  or  nasty,  etc.,  to  us 
from  our  earliest  memories.  The  teacher's  aim  then  is  to  utilise 
this  habit,  and  direct  it  into  the  channel  of  intellectual  work. 
"  The  object  of  a  classification  is  the  best  possible  ordering  of  our 
ideas  in  reference  to  things  ;  or  to  make  us  think  of  those  objects 
together  which  have  the  greatest  number  of  important  common 
properties.  Its  general  problem  is  to  provide  that  the  things  be 
thought  of  in  such  groups,  and  these  groups  in  such  an  order,  as 
will  best  conduce  to  the  ascertainment  and  remembrance  of  their 
laws"  (Mill).  By  it  we  seek  to  reduce  multiplicity  to  unity;  and 
thus,  when  we  know  an  object  belongs  to  a  certain  class,  we  can 
infer  of  all  the  other  members  of  that  class  the  properties  which 
we  know  to  belong  to  this  particular  object. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  classification  is  a  great  economical 
force,  reducing  the  labour  of  memory,  and  bringing  a  mass  of 
knowledge  within  our  grasp  by  rendering  it  easier  of  acquirement. 
It  naturally  follows  on  abstraction,  for  we  cannot  form  a  class 
until  we  have  abstracted  the  common  qualitie's  of  that  class.  The 
process  of  classifying  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  Look  for  a  type ;  i.e.,  ascertain  what  classes  of  objects  possess  a  general 

resemblance  to  each  other. 

2.  Then    determine    what    characters   these    resembling    objects    have    in 

common. 

3.  Then  constitute  your  class  by  means  of  some  of  these  resemblances. 

Take  as  an  example  the  sub-kingdom  of  flowering  plants.  They 
possess  a  general  resemblance  (flowering),  and  so  give  us  our 
type.  We  find  on  examination  that  these  resembling  objects  have 
certain  characters  in  common  ;  e.g.  : — 


314 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


Dicotyledons. 


1.  Embryo  with  two  cotyledons. 

2.  Primary  root  growth  exorhizal. 

3.  Growth  of  wood  with  open   bundles, 
exogenous. 

4.  Leaves  net  veined. 

5.  Parts  of  a  flower  arranged,  as  a  rule, 
in  fours  or  fives. 


Monocotyledons. 


1.  Embryo  with  one  cotyledon. 

2.  Primary  root  growth  endorhizal. 

3.  Growth  of  wood  with  closed  bundles, 
endogenous. 

4.  Leaves  parallel  veined. 

5.  Parts  of  flowers  arranged  in  threes. 


Out  of  these  resembling  characters  we  constitute  our  class 
dicotyledon  or  monocotyledon. 

Classification  will  apply  to  most  branches  of  a  teacher's  work, 
but  zoology  and  botany  furnish  the  best  examples  ;  e.g.,  plants 
may  be  arranged  according  to  the  country  from  which  they  come  ; 
according  to  locality,  length  of  life,  size,  properties,  etc.  In  botany 
classes  may  be  formed  according  to  the  number  of  stamens  and 
pistils,  or  according  to  the  differences  in  the  seed  vessels.  •'  The 
progress  of  chemistry  is  rapidly  rendering  it  a  science  of  classifica- 
tion. An  artificial  classification  of  the  chemical  elements  is 
necessary  for  the  detection  of  substances.  Hence  arrangements 
of  the  elements  accordin^.to  characters  of  very  minor  importance 
are  made,  because  they  can  be  made  with  ease  and  accuracy." 

V.  Reasoning. — Reasoning  is  the  mental  process  by  which  we 
detect  similarities.  A  bad  reasoner  cannot  see  where  similarity 
ends  and  difference  begins,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  reason  aims 
to  give  this  power.  Reasoning  is  progressive.  .A,nimais  reason  ; 
and  the  first  efforts  at  reasoning  by  a  child  start  from  no  higher 
level  probably.  Eventually  the  mind  is  able  to  grasp  distinctly 
a  general  truth,  and  to  draw  conclusions  from  it.  According  to 
George  Eliot,  too  much  reasoning  may  be  done.  "  Reason  about 
everything  with  your  child,  and  you  make  him  a  monster,  with- 
out reverence,  without  affections."  Reasoning  is  required  by 
nearly  all  subjects  in  the  school  curriculum  ;  but  it  is  specially 
cultivated  by  such  subjects  as  history,  problems,  grammar,  and 
the  physical  sciences.     There  are  two  methods  of  reasoning. 

1,  Inductive  Reasoning.— Here  a  number  of  facts  or  principles  are  examined 
and  compared,  and  through  them  a  general  truth  is  reached.  A  child  reasons 
thus  :— 


He  knows  men  die. 

He  observes  some  women  die. 

Some  boys  die. 

Some  girls  die. 

Some  babies  die. 


And  so  he  concludes  that 
■all  mortals  die,  which  is  a 
general  truth. 


ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE.  315 

Some  indications  are  spontaneous ;  e.g.,  "  The  burnt  child  dreads  the  fire  ". 
Inductions  have  to  be  regulated,  for  by  their  aid  a  child  gains  a  large  amount 
of  general  knowledge  (i)  About  the  properties  of  things  ;  (2)  About  the  causes 
of  changes   in  things  h  (3)   About  the  simpler  truths  of  space,    quantity,  and 
number.     The  process  of  regulating  knowledge  may  be  seen  as  follows  : — 
The  child  knows  its  father  smokes. 
The  men  who  visit  its  father  may  smoke. 
It  sees  men  in  the  street  smoke. 

Hence  it  concludes  that  "  all  men  smoke". 

By-and-by  it  notices  men  who  do  not  smoke.  The  induction  is  then  regu- 
lated to  "  Some  (not  all)  men  smoke". 

Furthermore,  the  child  gets  its  first  idea  of  cause  from  inductive  reasoning. 
He  finds  that  fire  burns,  water  wets,  food  satisfies  hunger,  etc.,  and  so  concludes 
that  everything  has  a  cause. 

2.  Deductive  Reasoning. — By  inductive  reasoning  a  child  picks  up  a  mass 
of  information,  and  gets  some  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  induction.  He  then 
proceeds  /<>  artfue  as  to  the  effects  of  these  laws  in  other  cases,  and  then  appeals 
to  experience  to  verify  or  condemn  his  conclusions.  Now  there  are  three  steps 
in  this  process  of  deductive  reasoning. 

{a)  There  is  the  general  truth  which  is  obtained  by  inductive  reasoning 
[induction). 

[b)  There  is  the  arguing  as  to  their  effects  in  other  cases  [deduction). 

[c)  There  is  the  process  of  verification  by  experience. 

6'.^.,  All  mammals  suckle  their  young  [induction). 
The  whale  suckles  its  young. 
.  *.  The  whale  is  a  mammal  [deduction). 
And  experience  corroborates  this. 

The  essential  process,  as  in  induction,  is  detecting  similarity 
or  assimilation.  We  bring  a  particular  case  (the  whale)  under 
the  general  rule  or  principle  (suckling),  and  we  do  this  because  we 
recognise  similarity  between  the  particular  case  and  the  cases 
included  under  the  general  rule. 

Deductive  reasoning  is  the  great  feature  of  scientific  knowledge^ 
The  more  deductive  a  science  becomes,  the  more  perfect  it 
becomes,  as  in  the  case  of  mathematics.  Most  of  the  great 
scientific  discoveries  are  the  result  of  deductive  reasoning.  The 
composition  of  light,  the  barometer,  the  thermometer,  gravitation, 
the  undulatory  theory  of  sound,  and  the  conservation  of  energy, 
are  some  of  these  discoveries.  The  teacher  will  have  plenty  of 
opportunity  for  using  deductive  reasoning  in  the  teachmg  of 
elementary  science  ;  for  such  simple  facts  as  the  cracking  of  a 
glass  by  hot  water,  fanning  when  hot,  etc.,  could  be  explained 
by  this  method. 


3i6 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

MUSIC. 

ITS  VAIiUE  IN  SCHOOIiS. 

1.  Pleasure. — The  primary  objects  of  school  music  should  be 
for  pastime  and  pleasure.  It  is  perhaps  the  most  exceptional  as 
well  as  the  cheapest  of  human  pleasures.  It  is  undoubtedly  a 
substantive  contribution  to  the  enjoyment  of  life.  "  Of  all  the 
fine  arts,  the  most  available,  universal,  and  influential  is  music  " 
(Bain). 

2.  Physical  Advantages. — It  opens  the  lungs  and  aids  cir- 
culation.    It  is  stimulating  in  drill  and  marching. 

3.  Discipline. — The  consensus  of  will,  when  all  unite  in  some 
beautiful  song,  is  of  great  value  to  discipline.     The  scholar  be- 
comes a  unit  in  a  body  more  or  less  large,  where  he  has  to  submi 
entirely  to  the  rule  and  guidance  of  the  conductor. 

4.  Ethical  Advantages. — Some  forms  of  music  educe  the 
moral  virtues  and  the  nobler  characteristics  of  the  mind.  A 
musical  strain  exerts,  ofttimes,  an  immense  power  over  the  mind 
to  animate,  to  encourage,  to  soothe,  and  to  control.  Some, 
however,  deny  that  it  has  any  permanent  moral  influence.  There 
are,  moreover,  certain  quasi-spiritual  relations  in  singing  which 
we  do  not  yet  understand  fully. 

5.  Patriotism. — "One  of  the  chief  means  of  diffusing  through 
the  people  natural  sentiments,  is  afforded  by  school  songs,  which 
embody  and  express  the  hopes  of  industry,  and  the  comforts  and 
contentment  of  household  life  ;  and,  preserving  for  the  peasant  the 
traditions  of  his  country's  triumphs,  inspire  in  him  confidence  in 
her  greatness  and  strength.  The  national  legend,  frequently 
embodied  in  songs,  is  the  peasants'  chief  source  of  that  national 
feeling  which  other  ranks  derive  from  a  more  extensive  acquaint- 
ance with  history.     The  songs  of  any  people  may  be  regarded  as 


MUSIC.  317 

important    means  of  forming   an   industrious,   brave,   loyal,   and 
religious  working  class," 

ITS  AIM. — The  aims  of  school  music  are  largely  suggested  by 
its  value,  and  the  items  of  value  have  just  been  enumerated. 
But  more  particularly  its  aims  may  be  briefly  enumerated  as 
follows  : — 

1.  To  teach  to  sing  by  ear  and  note.     To  train  the  ear  and  voice  so  as  to 

give  power  to  appreciate  and  perform  music. 

2.  To  enable  a  pupil  to  leave  school  capable  of  reading  and  understanding 

popular  music,  both  sacred  and  secular. 

3.  To  train  in  sacred  music  for  public  worship. 

4.  Music  is  an  innocent  recreation.     An  early  taste  for  music  may  exert  a 

beneficial  influence  upon  the  choice  and  character  of  the  amusements 
of  the  people. 

5.  To  cultivate  patriotism,  industry,  loyalty,  and  religion. 

CIjASSIFICATION'. — This  will  vary  in  different  schools,  and 
must  depend  on — 

1.  The  size  of  the  school. 

2.  The  arrangement  of  the  rooms. 

3.  The  number  of  the  qualified  teachers  upon  the  staff. 

4.  The  length  of  the  school  life. 

For  ordinary  schools  four  divisions  are  suggested ;  but  for 
smaller  schools  fewer  divisions  will  be  necessary,  and  the  work 
must  be  graded  to  suit.  This  grading  will  be  a  fluctuating 
quantity,  and  will  largely  depend  upon  the  organising  ability  of 
the  teacher. 

Division      I.  for  Infants. 

,,  II.    ,,    Standards  I,  and  II. 

III.    „  „  III.  and  IV. 

,,  IV.    ,,  ,,  V.  and  upwards. 

In  smaller  schools  with  fewer  divisions  less  should  be  attempted 
than  in  larger  schools.  The  range  of  instruction  must  be  re- 
stricted, or  more  work  is  thrown  upon  teachers  and  scholars  just 
where  circumstances  are  least  favourable  for  any  increase  of 
burdens. 

The  Two  Notations  Compared. 


Tonic  Sol-Fah. 


1.  "  It  combines  scientific  accuracy  with 
modes  of  expression  the  most  direct  and 
simple." 

2.  It  is  quicker  and  easier,  and  therefore 
more  suited  to  children. 


Old  Notation. 


1.  It  is  scientific,  graphic,  and  universal,, 
whilst  tonic  sol-fah  is  local. 

2.  It  is  suited  to  instrumental  music. 
Tonic  sol-fah  is  not  used,  except  in  rare 
cases,  for  this  purpose. 


3.  It   is   the   notation  generally  used  in        3.  It   is  the  recognised  music  language 
our  primary  schools.  1  of  the  civilised  world. 


31^ 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 
THE  TWO  NOTATIONS  COMPARED— co»^mMed. 


Tonic  Sol-Fah. 


4.  Its  time  names  and  its  system  of 
spacing  by  continuation  lines  make  the 
teaching  of  time  easier  and  more  thorough. 

5.  Modulator  advantages  : — 

(a)  Difficulties  can  be  presented  singly. 
(6)  Attention  can  be  paid  to   particular 
difficulties. 

(c)  Attention  of  a  whole  class  can  be 
obtained. 

(d)  Mental  effects  can  be  illustrated. 

6.  It  is  a  splendid  aid  to  the  old  notation, 
and  a  stepping  stone. 

7.  The  perpendicular  modulator  is  an 
advantage,  because  it  pictorially  represents 
the  higher  and  lower  notes  of  the  scale. 


Old  Notation. 


4.  It  is  the  medium  of  expression  used 
by  the  world's  greatest  masters,  and  their 
works  are  written  and  preserved  in  it. 

5.  "  It  can  claim  all  the  modulator  ad- 
vantages of  the  other  notation,  and  some- 
thing more  ;  for  having  once  conquered  the 
modulator,  the  end  is  attained ;  whilst  the 
tonic  sol-fah  disciple  has  to  attack  the  old 
notation  without  a  modulator  to  assist  him." 

6.  In  old  notation  the  staff  is  really  the 
modulator,  and  on  it  are  pictorially  repre- 
sented musical  intervals,  whilst  in  tonic 
sol-fah  the  modulator  is  at  right  angles  to 
the  notation. 

7.  Most  students  who  continue  their 
musical  studies  ultimately  revert  to   it. 


VOICS  TRAINING. 

1.  Tone. — The  teacher  should  aim  to  get  a  soft,  clear,  round, 

sweet,  and  yet  full  quality  of  tone. 

The  voices  should  blend.  Generally,  individual  voices  should  not  be  dis- 
tinguishable at  a  short  distance.  For  this  purpose  it  is  best  to  cultivate  a 
medium  strength  of  tone,  or  the  singing  will  inevitably  be  flat.  With  moder- 
ately soft  singing  it  is  also  often  flat,  hence  the  range  and  key  should  be  suit- 
able. The  range  should  be  small  at  first,  and  should  be  gradually  extended. 
Each  note  should  be  brightly  and  clearly  attacked,  and  there  should  be  no 
sliding  or  slurring  allowed.  Cultivate  downwards.  It  is  urged  by  eminent 
authorities  that  "  in  this  way  the  sweetness  of  soft  high  notes  can  be  best  imparted 
to  the  whole  voice;  whereas,  if  the  upward  moving  exercises  are  always  used, 
the  tendency  is  to  use  the  thicker  and  heavier  tone  on  the  high  notes  '".  Hence 
the  teacher  will  train  in  scale  exercises  from  doh'  to  doh,  and  not  conversely,  as 
a  rule. 

2.  Breath. — The  breath  should  be  thrown  well  forward  upon 

the  front  palate,  and  immediately  behind  the  roots  of  the  upper 

teeth. 

Breathing  exercises  without  singing  are  very  essential,  as  either  too  little 
or  too  much  impairs  the  quality  of  the  singing.  There  should  be  exercises  in 
inspiration,  expiration,  and  retention  or  holding  of  the  breath.  This  should  be 
done  at  the  teacher's  dictation.  The  pupils  should  keep  their  mouths  shut  in 
these  exercises.  Odd  minutes  may  be  used  in  this  way,  and  when  standing  the 
class  should  be  trained  to  take  a  series  of  breaths  without  moving  the  shoulders. 
The  inspiration  should  be  deep ;  the  expiration  slow  and  gradual.  Pupils 
should  never  breathe  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  or  between  words  closely  con- 
nected in  sense,  or  anywhere  where  it  is  likely  to  spoil  the  continuity  of  the 
words,  or  the  flow  of  music. 

3.  Articulation. — The  articulation  should  be  clear  and  distinct. 

Bad  articulation  is  one  of  the  greatest  faults  of  singers,  especially  amateurs. 
It  is  often  impossible  to  recognise  many  of  the  words  sung,  and  others  are  only 
recognised  by  the  aid  of  the  context.  The  sense  of  the  words  must  be  properly 
rendered  by  distinct  articulation  and  proper  expression.     The  reading  lessons 


MUSIC.  319 

can  be  turned  to  account  here,  for  a  satisfactory  spoken  articulation  is  a  good 
stepping  stone  to  a  musical  one.  The  shape  of  the  mouth,  and  the  proper 
rendering  of  the  vowels,  will  be  the  chief  points  requiring  attention.  Certain 
vowels,  like  a  (father),  a  (fate),  oa  (woad),  and  00  are  "  forward"  vowels,  and 
should  be  sung  well  forward  in  the  mouth ;  e  is  difficult,  and  requires  a  clear 
parting  of  the  lips. 

4.  Practice. — Voice  exercises  should  be  given. 

The  practices  should  not  be  too  long.  Little  and  often  is  best.  For 
musical  purposes  children's  voices  soon  tire.  The  aim  of  the  practices  will  be 
to  produce  a  good  quality  and  to  maintain  it.  For  this  purpose  it  will  be  again 
necessary  to  remind  the  teacher  that  the  exercises  should  be  carefully  chosen  as 
to  range  and  key,  and  graded  to  suit  the  varying  vocal  endowments  of  the 
children. 

5.  Posture. — The  attitude  of  the  children  must  receive  close 

and  constant   attention.      There  can   be    no  good   production    if 

associated  with  unnatural  or  unsuitable  methods. 

The  children  should  stand  to  sing;  upright,  with  heads  erect,  shoulders 
well  back,  and  the  chest  well  forward.  These  positions  must  be  easy  and 
natural.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  go  through  a  little  chest  drill  before  beginning 
the  singing.  Practices  like  some  of  those  used  in  dumb-bell  exercises  are  best  ; 
these  get  the  shoulders  back  and  expand  the  chest.  They  must  be  taken 
moderately,  or  the  breath  will  be  impaired  in  some  cases. 

THE  COMMON  SCALE. 

I.  The  Starting^  Point. — Explain  the  meaning  of  scale,  and 
illustrate  from  both  notations.  Then  choose  any  tone.  This  is 
the  starting  point ;  the  key  tone  or  tonic.     Call  it  doh. 

Make  the  class  understand  that  of  themselves  different  notes  possess  no 
peculiar  property  or  tone  character — nothing  more  than  variation  in  pitch.  But 
thoroughly  impress  a  given  sound  on  the  ear,  and  all  others  will  bear  a  proper 
relation  to,  arid  will  circle  round  it.  The  note  to  be  impressed  is  the  tonic. 
The  other  notes  of  the  scale  then  take  up  certain  definite  relations  to  it.  This 
will  be  illustrated  by  the  mental  effects  of  the  notes  of  the  scale. 

H.  Mental  Effects. — These  must  be  gradually  felt  by  the 
class.     Contrast  and  plenty  of  repetition  will  be  the  aids  to  apply. 

1.  Teach  the  fifth  [soh).     The  class  notes  its  effect,  but  the  teacher  need  not 

yet  name  it.     Practise  in  various  keys. 

2.  Teach  the  third  {me).     Proceed  as  with  the  fifth. 

3.  Then   combine    exercises    on    the    tonic,    the  ^fth    and    the    third   in 

different  keys;  i.e.,  practise  the  class  in  the  doh  chord  (d-m-s). 

The  notes  harmonise.     There  is  tonic  sympathy,  and  the  chord  gives 

conclusive  satisfaction. 

4.  The  tonic  should  then  be  taken  with  the  second,  fourth,  sixth,  and  seventh 

notes  of  the  scale.  The  class  now  feels  the  effects  of  tonic  contrast. 
The  notes  do  not  harmonise,  but  dissonate.  Each  interval  creates  a 
want. 

5.  The  class  should  now  be  ready  to  contrast  and  name  the  mental  effects 

of  the  scale.     Each  in  its  turn  should  be  contrasted  with  the  tonic  and 
with  the  others.     The  teacher  will  then  be  able  gradually  to  fill  in  the 
effects  against  each  note  as  he  writes  it  on  the  B.  B. ,  thus  : — 
DOHi — Strong  or  firm  tone  (octave). 
TE — Piercing  or  sensitive  tone. 


320  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

LAH — Sad  or  weeping  tone. 

SO  H— Grand  or  bright  tone. 

FAH— Desolate  or  awe-inspiring  tone. 
ME — Steady  or  calm  tone. 

RAY — Rousing  or  hopeful  tone. 

DOH — Strong  or  firm  tone. 
The  children  do  not  grasp  these  differences  at  once.  Plenty  of  repetition 
and  illustration  will  be  required.  Subsequently  the  teacher  will  show- 
that  all  these  effects  are  modified  by  pitch,  harmony,  quality  of  tone, 
and  rate  of  movement.  These  differences  or  modifications  must  be 
practically  demonstrated,  and  then  the  attention  of  the  class  must  be 
fixed  by  the  application  of  contrast. 

THE  MODITIiATOR. 

The  modulator  should  not  be  used  until  the  major  scale  is 
impressed  on  the  ear.  This  scale  and  its  mental  effects  will  be 
taught  by  ear.  Every  lesson  then  contains  some  modulator 
practice.  The  teacher  should  point  the  modulator,  and  the  class 
should  sing  without  pattern  after  the  initial  lessons.  The  pupils 
should  be  taught  to  sustain  each  note  as  long  as  the  pointer  is 
kept  upon  it.  The  wall  charts  and  sheets  should  be  used  for 
exercises.  The  key  tone  should  always  be  pitched  well  within 
the  range  of  the  class  voices,  and  the  melody  should  be  sung  in 
tune.  The  intervals  should  be  carefully  graded  according  to  the 
requirements  of  each  division.  There  should  be  no  random 
pointing  by  the  teacher.  The  class  should  sometimes  sing  in 
sections,  and  the  teacher  will  then  be  able  to  discover  where  the 
weakness  and  strength  of  his  class  respectively  lie.  Sol-fah-ing 
should  always  be  followed  by  laa-ing,  and  in  later  lessons  the 
pupils  should  sing  to  lah  always,  only  falling  back  on  the  sol-fah 
names  for  corrections.  Transitions  should  be  carefully  intro- 
duced, the  removes  appearing  in  their  proper  order. 

Early  Lessons  in  Tune. 

1.  Explain  pitch  and  key  tone. 

2.  Pattern  Singing  and  Class  Imitation.     The  teacher  gives  some  pattern 

singing ;  the  class  listens,  and  then  repeats  the  tones  sung  by  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  should  not  sing  ivz^k  the  pupils,  but  proceed  as 
follows :  — 

(a)  The  teacher  sings  a  tone  to  lah.     The  class  imitates.     The  teacher  tells 
them  that  is  their  key  tone. 

(b)  The  teacher  sings  this  tone  and  the  fifth  (soh).     The  class  imitates. 

3.  Key  Change  and  Self-Effort.     The  teacher  gives  another  key  tone.     The 

class  sings  it  and  tries  to  give  the  soh.  The  teacher  practises  this 
interval  by  frequently  changing  the  key.  The  dominant  range  (s  to  si) 
must  be  systematically  studied,  because  the  mental  effects  of  the  scale 
tones  are  somewhat  modified  by  the  prominence  given  to  the  fifth  of 
the  key.  The  class  must  not  be  practised  too  exclusively  in  low  keys, 
because,  then,  children  often  fail  when  asked  to  sing  in  a  higher  key. 


MUSIC.  321 

4.  Introduce  the  Mediant.     The  teacher  sings  me.     Then  there  is  pattern 

singing,  imitation,  self-effort,  and  practice  in  various  keys;  e.g.,  d,  m, 
s,  m,  s,  d,  s,  m,  s,  d. 

5.  Introduce  the  Octave.     The  exercises  can  now  be  increased  in  variety. 

6.  Manual  Signs.     These  should  be  used.     They  introduce  variety,  help 

the  mental  effects  by  association,  often  save  time,  and  demand  close 
attention.  In  Division  II.  no  leaps  should  be  made  to  or  from  the 
second,  fourth,  sixth  and  seventh  notes  ;  i.e.,  tonic  contrasts  should  be 
avoided.  In  Division  III.  any  intervals  may  be  given,  hence  the 
teacher  should  become  proficient  in  the  ready  production  of  manual 
signs. 

HOW  TO  ARRANGE  A  SCHOOL  MUSIC  CLASS. 

For  systematic  instruction  in  singing,  Mr.  John  Evans  makes 
some  very  practical  suggestions.  He  recommends  that  you 
should  sort  your  pupils,  to  make  it  possible  for  all  to  learn 
quickly  and  pleasantly  ;  i.e..,  you  should  arrange  your  pupils 
according  to  their  natural  musical  ability.  He  further  recom- 
mends that  you  should  place  the  most  promising  at  the  back  of 
the  class,  and  the  least  promising  in  front  near  the  teacher,  and 
he  points  out  certain  advantages  for  this  arrangement. 

1.  The  teacher  gets  the  result  he  wants  with  less  friction  and  labour. 

2.  It  gives  the  teacher  the  opportunity  of  rewarding  those  that  make  most 

progress  by  giving  them  a  place  with  the  selected  voices. 

3.  Pure  intonatioTi,  which  is  the  chief  thing  to  be  worked  for,  will  be  ob- 

tained more  quickly  and  easily. 

4.  It  affords  great  help  in  voice  training,  as  the  best  voices  serve  as  models 

for  the  others,  and  give  the  tone  required,  especially  in  classes  where 
the  teachers  cannot  pattern  the  tone  they  want. 

5.  It  materially  helps  to  cure  flat  singing,  for  the  flat  singers  are  placed  in 

front,  where  the  other  singers  hear  less  of  them. 
How  to  Find  the  most  Promising  Voices. 

1.  For  Standards  I.  and  II.  the  teacher  stands  in  front  of  the  class  and 

calls  on  ten  or  twelve  to  listen  to  him  whilst  he  sings  the  following 
phrase : — 

Key  G.     m,  d,  s,  1,  s. 

2.  The  children  imitate,  and  the  sweeter  and  purer  voices  are  easily  detected 

and  placed. 

3.  Then  try  the  whole  class  in  the  same  way. 

4.  In  Standard  III.,  instead  of  testing  by  imitation,   a  suitable  exercise 

should  be  written  on  the  B.  B.  ;  or  the  teacher  may  dictate  a  phrase. 

5.  The  altos  should  be  tested  by  themselves. 

EAR  TRAINING. 

No  branch  of  school  music  is  so  difficult  to  teach  as  this,  for 
the  subject  is  inherently  difficult.  But  any  lack  of  endowment  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils  can  be  more  or  less  successfully  met  by 
carefully  graded  teaching ;  and  some  useful  suggestions  for  this 
purpose  were  set  forth  in  one  of  the  early  numbers  of  the  School 
Music  Review,  the  chief  points  of  which  are  embodied  in  the 
following  hints  : — 

21 


322  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

I.  Requirements  for  Success. 

1.  Capacity. — The  teacher  must  be  capable.  He  must  have  a  cultivated  ear 
himself,  and,  unless  he  has  an  instrument,  he  must  be  able  to  sing  in  txine.  His 
enunciation  must  also  be  good,  his  vowel  pronunciation  being  correct. 

2.  Time. — Some  part  of  each  lesson  must  be  set  aside  for  training  the  ear. 
About  one-fifth  is  generally  recommended. 

3.  Gradation. — The  exercises  must  be  carefully  prepared  and  graded. 
i.  Variety. — The  exercises  should  also  be  varied. 

5.  Suitability. — They  must  be  adapted  to  the  ability  of  the  class. 

6.  Classification. — The  pupils  should  be  classified,  because  ability  varies, 
and  the  classification  should  be  carried  on  to  the  limits  of  the  staff.  A  good 
classification  acts  as  a  powerful  stimulus. 

II.  Its  Stag-es. — There  are  practically  three  stages. 

A.  Imitation. 

1.  If  possible,  a  musical  instrument  should  be  used,  at  least  as  a  change. 

The  voice  may  be  used  later  if  the  teacher  is  thoroughly  capable,  but 
he  should  begin  with  the  instrument  for  the  following  reasons  :  — 
(fl)  It  is  safer. 

(b)  It  is  easier. 

(c)  The  pitch  can  be  varied. 

(d)  It  prevents  the  class  getting  too  used  to  one  voice. 
{e)  It  removes  the  vowel  difficulty. 

2.  The  imitation  proceeds  as  follows  : — 

The  teacher  sings  a  few  notes.  The  class  imitates. 

The  teacher  /aas  the  same  notes.  The  class  again  imitates. 

The  teacher  then  graduates  his  exercises  somewhat  as  follows,   and  this 
introduces  the  second  stage — discrimination. 

B.  Discrimination. 

1.  The  pupils  tell — 

(a)  Any  arrangement  of  a  three-tone  key  chord,  as  u,  S,  H,  or  C,  G,  E. 
lb)  The  same,  without  the  first  note  being  told. 

(c)  Any  arrangement  of  a  four-tone  key  chord,  as  Q,  S,  PI,  Q  ,  or  C,  G,  E,  C  ,  the 

first  note  being  told. 

(d)  The  same,  without  any  note  being  told. 

(e)  Alternatives.        The  teacher  sings. 

s,  t,  d'      I         s,  1,  s 

G,  B,  C"         I  G,  A,  G 

And  then  asks  which  he  sings ;  i.e.,  the  class  discriminates. 
(/)  Any  three  tones  commencing  on  some  tone  of  the  key  or  doh  chord. 

2.  There  must  be  plenty  of  practice  to  laa. 

Do  not  begin  too  soon.  Wait  till  the  pupils  can  command  a  fair  amount  of 
ability  in  sight  singing,  whilst  using  the  sol-fah  syllabus.  Otherwise  there 
is  guessing,  or  a  following  of  a  few  leaders.  Again,  do  not  trust  too  much 
to  the  value  of  collective  laa-ing,  for  the  weak  are  too  much  at  the  mercy 
of  the  strong.     Individual  work  must  supplement. 

C.  Dictation. — The  three  stages,  imitation,  discrimination,  and  dictation, 
will  now  proceed  together,  affording  mutual  assistance.  Collective  laa-ing 
exercises  will  still  be  necessary,  but  they  must  be  well  graded,  and  not  too 
abundant  as  they  are  fatiguing.  Manual  signs  should  be  used  in  all  the  stages, 
for  in  addition  to  introducing  variety,  they  fix  the  attention  and  strengthen  the 
power  of  concentration  ;  they  have  been  already  shown  to  have  a  valuable  con- 
nection with  the  mental  effects,  and  they  act  as  a  fine  substitute  for  the  modulator, 
and  so  train  for  sight  singing  at  the  same  time.  Furthermore,  they  are  an  aid 
to  discipline,  as  they  allow  the  teacher  to  exercise  greater  vigilance  over  the 
class,  and  they  make  the  work  more  thorough  by  enabling  the  teacher  to  detect 
the  lazy,  timid,  and  indifferent. 


MUSIC. 


323 


m.  Teaching^. 

1.  Give  laa-ing  Exercises. — Some  such  scheme  as  the  following  is  sug- 
gested : — 

(a)  The  teacher  sol-fahs  easy  phrases,  and  the  class  repeats,  singing  to  lah. 
\b)  The  teacher  dictates  short  easy  phrases,  and  the  class  sings  them  (i)  to 

sol-fah  syllables,  (2)  to  lah. 
(t)  The  teacher  dictates  and  directs.     The  class  sings  up  or  down  the  scale, 

repeating  one  tone  or  omitting  as  directed. 
{d)  The  class  sings  one  stated  tone  of  the  scale  to  lah.     The  teacher  sol-fahs 

other  tones,  and  the  class  tries  to  repeat  the  first  stated  tone. 
{e)  The  class  sings  a  phrase.     The  teacher  sol-fahs  another  phrase,  and  the 

class  tries  to  repeat  the  first  phrase. 
(/)  The  teacher  writes  a  timeless  exercise  on  the  B.B.,  points  to  it  very 

slowly,  making  a  pause  of  a  second  or  two  between  each  two  tones  ; 

and  the  class  has  to  think  of  the  next  tone  before  it  is  pointed  to — a 

very  valuable  collective  exercise. 
[g)  The  class  sings  to  lah  a  very  short  easy  phrase,  and  it  then  makes  varied 

additions  to  the  phrase  as  dictated  by  the  teacher. 

2.  Give  easy  Ear  Exercises. — In  giving  these,  and  in  testing,  observe  the 
following  rules  : — 

(a)  Sing  each  ear  test  twice  before  proceeding  to  the  next. 
{b)  Change  the  key,  so  that  no  two  consecutive  tests  are  in  the  same  key. 
{c)  Sing  the  doh  chord  to  lah  slowly  before  each  test ;  and  again  in  the  same 
key  before  the  second  test. 

3.  Mental  Effects  of  Scale  Tones.  — When  a  fair  power  of  observation  is 
gained,  the  peculiar  effect  tones  of  the  scale  have  upon  one  another  can  be  used. 
The  mental  effect  of  a  tone  is  roughly  the  sum  of  its  relations  to  all  the  other 
tones  of  the  scale.  Verbal  explanation  is  not  much  good;  mental  effects  7nust 
be  felt,  not  understood.  They  must  be  repeatedly  and  pointedly  demonstrated, 
and  then  the  sol-fah  syllable  truly  becomes  the  name  of  a  tone,  the  name  of  a 
sensation.  Close  attention  is  necessary.  To  get  this  let  the  whole  class  sing 
the  chord,  and  then  let  one  of  the  class  sing  the  tone. 

4.  Graduation.— Give  a  graduated  course  of  moderate  difficulty.  The 
teacher  will  write  something  like  the  following  on  the  B.  B. ,  and  the  class  will 
have  to  discover  what  tones  are  sung  at  the  blanks.  Fewer  tones  should  be 
given  as  the  class  progresses. 


I 

2 

' 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

d 

s 

r 

1 

S 

d 

C 

G 

D 

A 

G 

C 

8.  Accumulating  Exercises. — These  cultivate  a  keen  observation  and  a  good 
memory  for  tune. 

(a)  The  teacher  sings  a  short  and  perfectly  easy  phrase;  e.g.,  d,  r,  m. 

[b)  The  class  answers  correctly. 

{c)  The  teacher  sings  the  same  phrase  and  adds  two  notes. 

{d)  The  class  again  answers  correctly. 

{e)  The  teacher  then  adds  two  more  notes,  never  adding  until  the  previous 

phrase  is  correctly  recognised. 
6.  Written  Exercises. — These  are  very    valuable     exercises.       Slates    or 
paper  can  be  used,  but  paper  is  best  for  obvious  reasons.      The  teacher  writes 


324 


A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 


down  a  number  of  tones  to  be  used  in  each  line,  numbers,  and  properly  spaces 
them.  (He  should  explain  the  whole  plan  of  the  exercise.)  If  the  test 
occupies,  say,  four  lines,  like  a  a  hymn  tune,  two  or  three  notes  should  be  given 
in  each  line. 


^ 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

First  Line 

d 
C 

fah 
F 

Second  Line         ...        - 

r 
D 

d 
C 

r 
D 

Third  Line 

1 
A 

s 
G 

m 
E 

Fourth  Line         .        .        .        . 

s 
G 

m 
E 

r 
D 

d 
C 

TIMS  AND  TUNE  COMBINED. 

Exercises  combining  time  and  tune  are  now  required  in  the 
higher  divisions,  but  it  is  not  wise  to  wait  till  those  divisions  are 
reached  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  combine  the  two  in  teach- 
ing. Children  must  be  taught  to  read  at  sight,  if  their  knowledge 
is  to  become  power.  The  work  must  be  graded  and  well  arranged, 
so  that  the  difficulties  may  be  gradually  approached. 

1.  Grade  your  Exercises. — The  School  Music  Revietv  recommends  : — 
[a)  Choose  those  containing  easy  intervals.      Exercises  with  repeated  notes 
are  generally  easy,    because  they  allow  the  attention  to  be  largely 
directed  to  the  time. 
{b)  Intervals  in  the  key  chord  or  doh  chord  are  easy. 

(t)  Passages  that  creep  from  note  to  note,  as  it  were,  are  easy  when  com- 
pared with  passages  containing  free  leaps. 

[d)  Short  continuations  are  generally  difficult.     The  rhythm  may  be  difificult 

quite  apart  from  the  intervals. 

[e]  Rests,  preceded  by  a  continuation,  often  give  trouble. 

The  following  are  given  as  illustrative  examples : — 
Key  F. 


(a) 


(6)    I. 


lid      :d.d|d 

KeyG. 

(Id     :s     !n 
\|f     :n.r|d 

Key  G. 

{|t, 
\   t, 


n 


s  .s  :  s 


:f 


Ir 
Id 


S|    |d.si:n.d  '  s 


fi     ir.li:f.r|l 


s.d  :n.Si  i  d.n  :  S|.s 


l.r  rf.lilr.f  :  1,  / 


MUSIC.  325 

Key  C. 
^^^       (Id    :r     ln.f:s     '1    :s      |  s.f :  n     In     :  f.s  |  l.s  .  d'   } 

(it     :l.t  Id    :-  |i 

Key  G. 

'  P 

d     :  -.d  i  r    :  -.r  ,  n    :  -  .d  |  d     :  s     | 


id)        {| 

^^^        l|n     :-  I  f    :r      |r    :-    |-  :        |s    :  -    |-  :f     } 


Key  F. 


(In     : 


It  will  be  observed  that  two  exercises  are  given  under  b.  These  show  that  it 
is  not  always  the  mere  width  of  a  leap  that  determines  the  difficulty ;  the  par- 
ticular members  of  the  scale  employed  must  be  considered.  The  first  passage 
is  quite  easy,  whilst  the  second,  although  using  much  the  same  interval  move- 
ment, is  very  much  more  difficult. 

2.  Preparatory  Exercises. 

[a]  Choose  your  exercise  carefully. 

[b)  Time  it  to  the  tiine  names. 
\c)  Time  it  to  lah. 

\d)  Sing  it  to  the  sol-fah  names. 

\e)  Sing  it  to  lah. 

(/)  Sing  it,  with  time  and  tune  combined,  to  the  sol-fah  names. 

\g)  Sing  it,  with  time  and  tune  combined^  to  lah. 

(ji)  If  there  are  any  words,  sing  to  the  words. 

{i)  Finally,  sing  with  due  regard  for  the  expression  marks. 

3.  Sight  Exercises. — Here  the  piece  should  be  laa-ed  to  time  and  tune  at 
once,  and  then  sung  to  the  words  with  due  expression. 

4.  Final  Stage. — The  piece  should  be  taken  straight  off,  with  proper 
attention  to  the  conductor.  This  is  a  difficult  accomplishment,  involving  a 
rapidly  shifting  attention,  and  marking  a  high  state  of  perfection.  It  is  the 
final  goal  of  all  school  musical  effort,  and  must  not  be  sought  too  hurriedly. 
Every  previous  step  will  require  complete  mastery  before  any  efforts  of  this 
nature  are  attempted. 

TIMS. 

How  to  Give  the  Idea  of  Time. — Appeal  to  the  common 
experience  of  the  children.  They  walk  or  run  the  same  distance 
in  unequal  times  ;  one  cart  goes  faster  than  another;  one  train 
slower  than  another  ;  and  so  lead  the  children  to  see  that  one 
sound  follows  another  sometimes  at  regular  intervals,  sometimes 
at  irregular  intervals.  Demonstrate  this  before  the  class.  It  will 
be  observed  that  sometimes  the  sounds  are  quick ;  sometimes 
slow.     Show  this  on  some  musical  instrument,  on  some  common 


326  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

object,  or  by  the  voice.      If  the  sounds  follow  each  other  in  an 
orderly  succession  the  effect  is  called  time. 

To  Teach  Accent. — Teach  by  talking  and  singing. 

1.  Talking. — The  value  of  accent  can  easily  be  made  apparent  by  ordinary 
speech.  Repeat  some  verbal  phrase  in  a  monotone.  Then  repeat  the  same 
phrase  in  ordinary  conversational  style.  The  difference  will  be  obvious  to  the 
children.  That  difference  is  made  by  accent.  Illustrate  further  by  single 
words.  The  accented  syllable  should  be  slightly  exaggerated.  Verbal  illus- 
trations should  be  given  and  asked  for,  and  from  these  it  will  be  noticed  that  in 
every  word  there  is  at  least  one  strong  accent  ;  e.g.  : — 

beau'-ti-ful  equals  strong,  weak,  tnedium. 
di-ges'-tion       ,,       weak,  strong,  weak. 
good'-ness         ,,       strong,  weak. 

2.  Singing. — Now  sing  a  simple  phrase  in  a  monotone,  making  the  notes  of 
equal  length  and  strength.  Then  repeat  the  phrase  again  with  its  proper 
accents.  I'he  difference  will  again  be  obvious,  and  it  is  again  caused  by  accent. 
Now  ask  the  class  to  say  what  accent  is.  They  will  tell  you  that  some  words 
are  louder  than  others,  or  that  one  is  more  abrupt  than  the  other.  Illustra- 
tions should  then  be  given  from  the  tonic  sol-fah  or  old  notation — whichever 
may  be  taught  in  the  school. 

The  Time  Chart. — The  teacher  is  not  advised  to  introduce 
the  chart  en  masse  to  the  pupils.  He  will  find  it  better  to  print 
that  portion  which  he  wishes  to  use  upon  the  B.B.  The  whole 
chart  is  distracting  to  the  attention  of  the  ordinary  scholar,  and 
apt  to  intimidate  the  dull  and  weak.  The  lessons  should  be  in- 
troduced as  required,  and  little  passages  written  on  the  B.B.  to 
illustrate  them.  The  lessons  should  fall  at  least  into  six  classes, 
some  of  which  will  be  introduced  to  the  higher  divisions  only. 
The  classes  should  be  arranged  as  follows  : — 

Class  I.  Wholes  and  halves,     i       Class  4.   Sixths. 
,,     2.  Quarters. 
„     3.  Thirds. 

Plan  of  a  Iiesson  on  Time. 

1.  Commence   with   two-pulse   measures.       The   class   will   listen    to    the 

teacher,  who  will  taa  a  simple  passage. 

2.  The  class  then  imitates,  the  teacher  beating  time. 

3.  The  class  should  then  be  divided  into  two  divisions,  and  each  division 

should  taa  alternate  ?neasures,  still  keeping  the  swing  of  the  time, 

4.  The  exercise  should  then  be  practised  at  varying  rates  of  time. 

5.  The  accent  should  be  marked  in  each  measure. 

6.  The  exercise  should  then  be  laa-ed.      This  exercise  is  not  impQrtant  in 

simple  measures,  but  it  is  more  important  when  there  is  a  variety  of 
time  names  introduced. 

7.  Continuation    lines    and   half-pulses  might    then    be    introduced,    and 

exercises  given  upon  them. 

8.  The  quarter-pulse  should  not  be  introduced  for  some  time,  in  fact  not 

until  the  children  reach  a  higher  music  class  in  large  schools. 

9.  The  other  measures  should  be  gradually  introduced,  but  no  harder  time 

divisions  than  quarter-pulses  should  at  present  be  included. 
10.    Harder  time  divisions  (thirds,  etc.)  should  be  relegated  to  later  lessons 
and  more  advanced  classes. 


5.  Eighths. 

6.  Ninths. 


MUSIC.  327 

Things  to  Remember  in  Teaching  Time. 

1.  With  the  help  of  the  time  chart,  time  should  be  studied  separately  from 
tune — at  first. 

2.  The  teacher  has  to  set  up  an  association  between  syllable  and  rhythm. 

3.  The  teacher  should  pattern,  and  point  on  the  time  chart. 

4.  The  pupils  should  imitate. 

5.  Then  pupils  and  teacher  should  taa-tai  alternately,  measure  for  measure 

at  first,  and  longer  passages  afterwards.     This  gives  "  swing". 

6.  The  rate  should  be  varied. 

7.  The  class  should  sing  ivithout  the  teacher  pointing. 

8.  Exercises  should  then  be  written  on  the  B.  B. ,  or  sung  from  books. 

9.  Finally,  the  passages  should  be  laa-ed. 

Rhythm. — To  teach  this  suitable  examples  should  be  given,  in  which  the 
rhythm  may  be  made  obvious.  Each  time  exercise  should  be  taa-tai-ed  on 
various  tune  forms.     The  method  suggested  is  : — 

1.  The  teacher  prepares  some  suitable  time  exercises,  and  sol-fahs  or  sings 

one  of  them. 

2.  The  teacher  now  points  the  same  exercise  on  the  7nodulator,  but  taa-tais. 

3.  The  pupils  imitate.     The  object  is  to  show  the  sameness  of  the  rhythm 

and  the  difference  in  the  tune.  The  time  names  show  the  sameness  of 
the  rhythm,  and  the  modulator  the  difference  in  the  time. 

4.  The  pupils  should  then  sing  the  same  exercises  from  their  books,  or 

charts,  or  from  the  B.  B. 

SONGS. 

A.  Choice  of  School  Songs. — School  songs  should  be  chosen 
with  some  care,  and  with  proper  consideration  for  the  nature  of 
the  music  and  the  words, 

I.  Suitable  Songs. — These  will  embrace  : — 

1.  Those  which  express  natural  sentiments. 

2.  Those  which  express  the  hopes  of  industry. 

3.  Songs  dealing  with  the  comfort  and  contentment  of  household  life. 

4.  Patriotic    songs — such    as    preserve  the     traditions    of    the    country's 

triumphs,  and  inspire  the  pupils  with  confidence  in  its  greatness  and 
strength.  These  will  include  some  war  songs,  and  the  national  songs  ; 
but  the  teacher  must  guard  against  anything  like  the  glorification  of 
war. 

5.  Songs  embodying  the  national  legends. 

6.  Songs  dealing  with  chivalry,  bravery,  and  loyalty. 

7.  Humorous  songs.      The  humour  should  be  wholesome  and  intelligible. 

These  songs  are  very  popular  with  the  children. 

8.  Songs  dealing  with  our  national  games. 

9.  Simple  descriptive  songs,  like  those  dealing  with  the  seasons. 

n.  Qualities  of  a  G-ood  School  Song. 

1.  The  singing  must  be  sweet  and  in  tune. 

2.  The  cofnpass  of  the  song  should  be  suitable. 

3.  The  words  should  be  such  as  the  children  can  understand. 

4.  The  articulation  must  be  clear,  and  the  enunciation  easily  intelligible. 

5.  The  ti?ne  must  be  exact. 

6.  There  must  be  suitable  expression. 

7.  The  quality  of  the  tone  should  be  pleasing. 

8.  The  breath  must  be  properly  managed, 

9.  The  position  of  the  singer  must  be  healthy  and  suitable. 
10.  The  phrasing  must  be  good. 


328  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

B.  How  to  Teach  a  School  Song. 
I.  For  Voung^  Classes. 

1.  The  words  must  first  be  learnt.     One  verse  will  be  sufificient  to  begin 

with. 

2.  The  tune  or  melody  should  then  be  learnt  by  imitation,  phrase  by  phrase. 

An  instrument  should  be  used  for  this  purpose  where  one  is  available. 
Otherwise,  the  teacher  must  vocalise  the  song. 

3.  The  rest  of  the  words  should  then  be  taught. 

4.  Plenty  of  practice,  pattern  work,  and  correction  should  follow. 

II.  For  Higher  Classes. 

1.  Preparation. — Dictate  the  melody,  or  write  it  on  the  B.B.,  or  distribute 

books  containing  it.     Neither  is  yet  to  be  used. 

2.  Modulator.  —Point  the   melody  on  the  modulator.      The  class  should 

sol-fah  it,  and  afterwards  laa  it. 

3.  Time. — The  class  should  then  time  the  melody  to  the  time  names  from  the 

B.  B.  or  otherwise,  and  then  laa  it  in  proper  time. 

4.  Melody. — They  should  next  sing  the  melody  from  their  books  or  from  the 

B.  B.  as  the  case  may  be.     The  melody  should  be  thus  repeated  until 
it  is  known  from  memory. 

5.  Memory. — Then  let  the  class  point  the  tune  from  memory,  on  a  modulator 

written  on  their  slates. 

6.  Ear.  — Give  ear  tests  from  and  based  upon  the  melody. 

7.  Words. — Have  the  words  dictated,  learnt,  and  explained  where  necessary. 

8.  Song. — The  melody  should  then  be  sung  to  the  words,  the  teacher  striv- 
ing to  obtain  the  qualities  enumerated  above. 

Part  Singing. — This  need  not  be  confined  to  any  one  division. 

1.  Its  Advantages. 

{a)  It  awakens  a  strong  interest  in  singing. 

[h)  It  introduces  variety. 

\c)   It  cultivates  the  sense  of  musical  harmony,  and  so  increases  the  feeling 

of  pleasure  derived  from  vocal  music. 
{d)  It  cultivates  the  taste  for  a  pure  and  cheap  form  of  amusement. 
\e)  It  is  an  important  aid  to  ear  and  voice  training. 

2.  Its  Teaching. 

[a]  At  first  let  the  music  be  si7nple  and  easy.  Do  not  be  too  anxious  to 
murder  ambitious  pieces.     This  applies  to  time  and  tune. 

{b)  Choose  a  major  key,  and  at  first  have  no  chromatics  or  accidentals. 

\c)  Commence  with  rounds.     This  trains  their  "  holding  "  powers. 

{d)  Then  proceed  to  simple  part  singing.  Before  this  can  be  done  examine 
the  children's  voices,  and  arrange  the  class  so  as  to  have  the  worst 
voices  in  front,  thus  : — 


Best  trebles         |  Best  altos 

Inferior  trebles      i        Inferior  altos 


Give  the  trebles  and  altos  some  separate  training  exercises,  so  as  to  get 

even  production  from  both  parts. 
{e)  Let  the  whole  class  sing  the  alto  (or  second  treble)  before  the  first  treble 

is  touched  at  all.     This  is  to  be  continued  until  the  alto  part  is  well 

rendered. 


MUSIC. 


329 


(/)  Where  possible,  then  have  the  piece  played,  and  let  the  whole  class  sing 

alto. 
(^)  Have  the  treble  well  sung  by  the  trebles.     Repeat  till  well  done. 
(k)  Then  let  the  two  parts  be  sung  together  with  the  piano,  and  afterwards 

without  the  piano, 
(i)  Have  the  words  learnt,  and  the  piece  rendered  with  due  expression  in 

two  parts,  with  the  words. 

SINGING  FLAT. 


Its  Causes. 


1.  Voice.  The  singing  may  be  too  loud  ; 
it  may  be  forced,  strained,  or  coarse  ;  or 
carelessly  rendered  ;  or  it  may  arise  from 
physical  weakness ;  or  from  neglect  of 
breathing  places,  and  consequent  exhaus- 
tion ;  from  weather  (damp  or  cold) ;  from 
overstrain  or  fatigue  ;  or  from  a  bad  atmo- 
sphere in  the  school. 

2.  Ear.  There  may  be  defects  of  the 
ear,  and  very  often  the  remedy  is  slower  in 
its  operation. 

3.  Discipline.  The  singing  may  be  lax 
and  careless,  or  the  pupils  may  be  in- 
attentive, or  in  a  bad  position. 

i.  No  Interest.  There  may  be  a  lack  of 
interest  from  some  cause  or  other.  Cases 
of  this  sort  are  rare. 

5.  Breath. 


Its  Remedies. 


1.  Make  the  pupils  sing  softly,  and  listen 
to  the  phrase  when  sung  or  played  in  tune. 
Test  with  the  tuning  fork  or  instrument. 
Practise  in  the  key  of  C,  and  let  the  passage 
always  iinish  on  C.  Strike  the  fork  on  the 
last  note.  The  flatness  becomes  thus  a 
reality  to  the  class,  and  greater  efforts  are 
made  to  conquer  it.  If  the  school  possesses 
an  instrument  they  can  be  similarly  tested 
and  corrected  in  any  key.  The  remedies 
in  the  other  case  are  obvious. 

2.  Plenty  of  pattern  singing  will  be 
required.  Modulator  exercises  should  be 
slowly  sung  from  the  pattern  of  the  teacher 
or  the  instrument.  This  must  be  sup- 
plemented with  ear  tests  and  the  study  of 
mental  effects. 

3.  The  remedy  here  is  obvious. 

4.  The  cause  must  be  ascertained,  and 
if  possible  removed.  The  intrinsic  charm 
of  the  subject  will  then  create  its  own 
interest. 

5.  See  notes  on  voice  training. 


HOW  TO  TEJACH  ROUNDS. 

"  The  practice  of  teaching  rounds  is  most  valuable  and  in- 
teresting in  class  singing.  Rounds  are  the  happiest  possible 
means  of  bridging  the  chasm  between  unison  and  part  singing, 
and  they  often  provide  infinite  delight  and  amusement  for  young 
pupils." 

Teaching-. 

1.  First  see  that  your  class  is  fit  to  commence  the  study.     A  class  should  be 

able  to  sing  smoothly  in   unison  before  attempting  even  a  simple 
round. 

2.  Silence  the  flat  singers  and  growlers. 

3.  Next  get  your  round.     Let  it  be  a  simple  one  at  first,  with  a  range  not 

greater  than  an  octave. 

4.  Choose  melodious  rounds.     They  are  easier  to  remember, 

5.  Do  not  choose  rounds  with  rests,  especially  if  the  rests  are  on  accented 

pulses.     Plain  smooth  rhythm  stands  the  test  chance. 

6.  Words  with  a  little  innocent  fun  in  them  are  sometimes  desirable.     Avoid 

words  which  are  too  obviously  moral  lessons. 

7.  Let  the  class  learn  the  whole  melody  of  the  round  as  a  unison  song.      It 

should  te  sol-fah-ed,  then  laa-ed,  then  sung  to  words. 
21* 


330  A  NEW  MANUAL  OF  METHOD. 

8.  Divide  the  class  into  as  many  sections  as  necessary.      They  can  then  be 

arranged  either  side  by  side,  or  behind  each  other.  But  the  plan  and 
furniture  of  the  room  will  be  an  important  factor  in  most  arrangements. 
The  one  section  behind  the  other  is  the  best  arrangement,  because 
nearly  every  pupil  can  hear  and  feel  the  onslaught  of  the  other  parts. 

(a)  Make  each  section  separately  sing  the  round  as  a  melody. 

(b)  The   teacher   should   then   "  pit  "   himself  against   the  whole  class  as   the 

second  part  of  the  round. 

(c)  When  possible,  sing  against  each  section.      If  the  class  is  very  large,  sub- 

divide the  sections  and  sing  against  each. 

{d)  Let  six  picked  pupils  sing  the  round  against  the  teacher. 

(e)  If  successful,  add  six  more. 

(/)  Then  group  the  two  sixes  separately  in  a  circle,  and  try  them  against  one 
another. 

ig)  As  this  succeeds,  keep  adding  to  the  number  of  each  group  until  the  two  full 
sections  are  singing  one  against  the  other.  This  arrangement  is  recom- 
mended by  high  authorities  for  two-part  rounds. 

9.  Three  and  four  part  rounds  are  more  interesting,  and  will  follow  the 

others. 

(a)  Let  them  be  sung  first  as  two-part  rounds,  and  sing  the  third  part  yourself 

(b)  Divide  the  class  into  three  sections,  and  make  any  two  sections  sing  in  two 

parts. 

(c)  Practise  the  three  sections  in  three  parts. 

{d)  Proceed  in  the  same  cautious  way  for  four  parts. 

10.  In  choosing  rounds  with  a  view  to  give  special  practice  in  time,  it  is 

well  to  select  those  that  have  at  least  one  part  that  firmly  marks  the 
beat  or  pulse. 

DEFECTS  IN  SCHOOIi  SINGING. 

The  most  common  defects  in  school  singing  have  been  thus 
summarised  by  one  of  H.M.  Inspectors  : — 

1.  Want  of  voice  cultivation,  resulting  in  an  unmelodious  quality  of  voice, 

harshness  characterising  the  boys'  and  stridency  the  girls'  voices. 

2.  A  faulty  balance  of  voices,  the  boys'  voices,  as  a  rule,  being  too  pre- 

dominant.    A  proper  relation  of  the  two  elements  should  be  aimed  at. 

3.  Insufficient  weeding  out  of  bad,  untrue,  and  incurably  harsh  voices. 

4.  Inadequate  range  of  voice,  leading  to  the  injudicious  selection  of  too  low 

keys. 

5.  Want  of  expression.      The  singing  is  often  tame  and  apathetic,  and  the 

teacher  is  often  a  mere  animated  metronome. 

PROPER  DIVISION  OF  TIME. 

For  a  half-hour's  lesson  the  following  arrangement  of  the  time 

is  recommended : — 

3  minutes  for  voice  exercise. 

5  , ,  modulator  exercise  for  ^une. 

5  ,,  time — on  charts  and  B.B. 

3  ,,  ear — the  teacher  to  give  exercises. 

6  , ,  Hme  and  tune — from  charts  or  books. 
8           ,,           songs — from  books,  as  a  rule. 

QUAIilFICATIONS  OF  A  CONDUCTOR.     (Barnby.) 

1.  Abundant  technical  knowledge. 

2.  Experience. 

3.  A  strong  will. 

4.  Magnetic  influence. 


MUSIC.  331 

5.  A  quick  ear. 

6.  A  sharp  tongue. 

7.  A  good  memory. 

8.  A  clear  beat. 

The  conductor  is  not  to  be  always  looking  at  his  book  or  his  copy,  but  is  to 
be  en  rapport  with  his  class. 

CHOra  EFFICrENCY. 

There  are  some  essential  tests  of  efficiency  in  a  choir  or  sing- 
ing class. 

1.  Perfect  time. 

2.  Good  intonation. 

3.  Well-balanced  parts. 

4.  The  tone  must  be  of  good  quality. 

5.  The  expression  marks  must  be  accurately  and  tastefully  rendered. 

6.  The  articulation  must  be  clear.     The  proper  use  of  the  lips,  tongue,  and 

teeth  is  much  neglected. 

7.  The  phrasing  must  be  good.     "  Ragged  edges  "  should  be  avoided.     The 

attack  should  be  simultaneous,  and  the  release  of  the  last  note  equally 
so. 

8.  There  should  be  soul  or  feeling  in  the  singing. 

EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS. 

I. — Describe  the  best  method  of  proceeding  in  teaching  a  new  song  to  infants  or  to 
older  children. 

2. — Describe  the  method  you  adopt  in  teaching  "  singing  by  note  "  to  a  class  of 
beginners. 


JD  ,547^6 


